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Freedom and Servitude in Shakespeares The Tempest Essay

Freedom and Servitude in Shakespeares The Tempest What is slavery? Is it an institution? A mental state? A physical state? Is it human nature? Or is, â€Å"†¦slavery is†¦an inherent, natural and eternal inheritance of a large portion of the human race† (Ruskin 307). Whether or not any one of these options is true, the fact remains that each says something about humanity. Therefore, when a play like The Tempest comes along, centering on the themes of freedom and servitude, one must look for the commentary that is thereby produced, keeping in mind that Shakespeare rarely lacked commentary. Of course, in Shakespeare’s way, there are several characters introduced within this theme. Hence, I pose the question: Who is the slave?†¦show more content†¦Ariel does, at times, complain – hoping for its pending freedom. But through discipline and sometimes anger, Prospero reminds the spirit of how much good has been done for it already: Pros. Dost thou forget From what torment I did free thee? Ar. No. Pros. Thou dost, and think’st it much to tread the ooze Of the salt deep, To run upon the sharp wind of the north, To do me business in the veins o’th’ earth When it is baked with frost. Ar. I do not, sir. Pros. Thou liest, malignant thing. Hast thou forgot The foul witch Sycorax, who with age and envy Was grown into a hoop? Hast thou forgot her? Ar. No, sir. [1.2.252-261] Ariel is therefore constrained by this sense of debt and obligation that Prospero creates in its mind. Nonetheless, the spirit is typically seen as the dutiful servant by carrying out the orders given entirely, and usually without comment. â€Å"Ariel is the spirit of generous and free-hearted service, in early stages of human society oppressed by ignorance and wild tyranny† (Ruskin 307). Ariel isShow MoreRelated European Colonization in Shakespeares The Tempest Essay1279 Words   |  6 PagesNo Critique of European Colonization in The Tempest      Since the 1960s, several critics have found a critique of colonialism in their respective readings of Shakespeares The Tempest. The most radical of these analyses takes Prospero to be a European invader of the magical but primitive land that he comes to rule, using his superior knowledge to enslave its original inhabitants, most notably Caliban, and forcing them to do his bidding. While the textual clues concerning the geographic locationRead MoreExamples Of Colonialism In The Tempest944 Words   |  4 PagesThe Tempest, written by playwright William Shakespeare is one of his most popular, yet also controversial plays. This paper will discuss the postcolonial interpretations of Shakespeare’s play, by looking at the nature of colonialism, and how it has been incorporated within his play, through the role of the colonized versus the colonizers. This paper will also compare how 21st century audience’s views may differ to that of the traditional Elizabethan’s, in re lation to the play’s treatment of the originalRead MoreTheme Of Freedom In The Tempest821 Words   |  4 PagesOne of the most prominent themes in Shakespeare’s The Tempest it undoubtedly that of freedom, mastery and servitude. Several different dynamics of servitude are presented in the relationships between the characters. Throughout this essay I will explore some of these relationships, and demonstrate the different ways in which the characters function in them. Although â€Å"it is now impossible to teach the play without some discussion of colonialism† (DeCoursey, 43), McConnell highlights the differenceRead MoreThe Postcolonial Interpretations Of Shakespeares The Tempest1512 Words   |  7 Pages The Tempest, written by playwright William Shakespeare is one of his most popular, yet also controversial plays. This paper will discuss the postcolonial interpretations of Shakespeare’s play, by looking at the nature of colonialism, and how it has been incorporated within his play, through the role of the colonized versus the colonizers. This paper will also compare how 21st century audience’s views may differ to that of the traditional Elizabethan’s, in relation to the play’s treatment of theRead More The Cycle of Slavery in The Tempest Essay1641 Words   |  7 PagesThe Cycle of Slavery in The Tempest  Ã‚   William Shakespeare’s The Tempest blends elements of adventure and intellectual inquiry. The plot of Shakespeare’s last work contains comedy, romance, and action enough to sustain the interest of his common audience. However, there lies beneath the eloquent language and exciting plot an intelligent political commentary. Shakespeare uses the setting of a virtually uninhabited island as an experimental testing ground for the institution of slavery. ShakespeareRead MoreEssay On Colonialism In The Tempest1624 Words   |  7 PagesAs Shakespeare’s final play, The Tempest, holds phenomenal value. In his writing, Shakespeare often included contemporary issues of his time. In Hamlet, for example, the idea of a King dying was an important notion. This was drawn from the belief that a King got his authority from God, so if he died nature would become unbalanced and disturbed. In The Tempest, he included his supportive views of colonialism into his writing. Centuries late r, Aimà © Cà ©saire made an adaptation of Shakespeare’s The TempestRead MoreThe Tempest By William Shakespeare950 Words   |  4 PagesThe Tempest is a play that seems to be about a group of shipwrecked nobles, when in actuality it is a critique of the destructive effects of one group forcing its ideas on another. William Shakespeare wrote The Tempest in the early 1600’s, a time when England was beginning to assert itself as a superpower by colonizing other countries. In The Tempest Prospero is a callous character who mistreats Caliban, and as a result, Caliban becomes resentful and bitter, but unable to rule himself; ultimatelyRead More Caliban in Shakespeares The Tempest Essay1855 Words   |  8 PagesThe Tempest, considered by many to be Shakespeare’s farewell to the theatre, has of all his plays the most remarkable interpretive richness. The exceptional flexibility of Shakespeare’s stage is given particular prominence in The Tempest due to its ori ginality and analytic potential, in particular in the presentation of one of his most renowned and disputed characters, Caliban. Superficially portrayed in the play as a most detestable monster, Caliban does not evoke much sympathy. However, on furtherRead More Essay on the Importance of Language in The Tempest1326 Words   |  6 PagesThe Importance of Language in The Tempest      Ã‚   In discussing Derridas view of Western literature, Geoffrey Hartman writes that Western tradition has been marked . . . by a metaphysics of light, by the violence of light itself, from Apollonian cults to Cartesian philosophies. In the light of this emphatic light everything else appears obscure; especially the Hebraic development of aniconic writing and self-effacing commentary of textuality (xix). This point is well illustrated by the natureRead MoreThe Tempest By William Shakespeare1640 Words   |  7 Pages Brown’s insistence that The Tempest is a play of steeped in ambivalence and contradictions is not entirely unfounded, however. Prospero himself is an extremely powerful magus whose power borders on the transcendent and divine; he is also a man obsessed with perfecting his â€Å"art† that, at times, can be base and wicked. He demonstrates compassion and generosity, yet his apathetic and sometimes contemptuous treatment of other characters raises questi ons about his moral sensibilities. Within the drama

Who Am I Free Essays

Australia, whose name is Bianca. I am currently 1 6 years of age. I have very strong opinions on many things and I like to debate people on what I believe is right. We will write a custom essay sample on Who Am I or any similar topic only for you Order Now Sometimes that gets me into a lot of trouble but I stick to what I believe in the end. What defines me is my sense of knowing do belong. I am who I am, I am unique and different and I now that, that is okay, because everyone is unique and different too. I see myself as a bubbly person, who tends to keep her deeper thought and feelings to herself. Sometimes I’m insecure, sometimes I let little things hurt me, sometimes worry about petty little issues that won’t matter in the next 10 years but that is just who I am now. Many life experiences have defined the person who I am today, and for that I am grateful. Although not all of hose experiences have been good, they have all been a learning experience for me and have helped shape the person I have become today. I wouldn’t change anything I have experienced because I would be a different person. I wouldn’t be as strong, as open to new things, wouldn’t be as spontaneous, and I just wouldn’t be me. Everything little thing every little stepping stone, every little bump has made me the person I am today and I am so proud of that. How to cite Who Am I, Papers Who Am I Free Essays string(21) " Howe as an example\." They are strangers to themselves. Perhaps this phrase is the most simplistic yet most accurate description of individuals suffering from a dissociative disorder. Their whole life can feel like one big dream, but the worst part is that it isn’t even their dream—it’s someone else’s. We will write a custom essay sample on Who Am I? or any similar topic only for you Order Now Everything seems to operate in slow motion—the outside world can feel like an eternally ungraspable perception—and worse yet the individual feels like nothing more than a perception†¦. a mere fleeting thought. This sort of depersonalization is the key characteristic of  Dissociative Identity Disorder, separating it from the dissociative amnesias and fugues. DID, previously known as Multiple Personality Disorder, possesses a long and storied 300 year history. From the â€Å"demonic possessions† of yesteryear to the sensationalized cases of today (â€Å"Sybil† and â€Å"Eve,† for example), DID is one of the most recognized yet controversial mental disorders in modern society. Although it has become a part of pop culture, official diagnoses of DID remain rare, afflicting under one percent of the population (Sidran Foundation 1). While many ealthcare professionals doubt the very existence of this disorder, it nevertheless remains a fixture in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) (Barlow and Durand 161). A further examination of possible causes, symptoms, and treatments of this condition will enhance understanding and, possibly, acceptance. What causes DID? The answers to this question have ranged from demonic possession to schizophrenia to the idea that everyone possesses â€Å"many minds† ( a concept known as multiplicity). In contrast, a large number of theorists claim that so-called DID is a direct result f manipulative therapists who convince vulnerable patients that they have multiple personalities (â€Å"Dissociative Identity Disorder,† Wikipedia). Despite the debate and alternatives, most DID proponents believe that the disorder is a prime example of the diathesis-stress model. Some sort of biological vulnerability certainly exists, or else we would have a world populated by 30 billion people rather than 3 billion. The higher incidence of DID among family members suggests a possible genetic component, although the exact nature of such an assumption is unknown. One theory explains that some individuals may be born with a higher capacity for dissociation. Such individuals are more hypnotizable (able to separate themselves from conscious awareness), and they find it much easier to enter a trance-like state than the general population (Kaplan, â€Å"Dissociative†). In fact, one may view DID as the extreme end on a continuum of dissociation, with activities such as daydreaming on the â€Å"normal† end (â€Å"Dissociative Identity Disorder,† Yahoo Health). The idea of a predisposition for dissociation dates back to the 1880s, when a octor known as Janet theorized that some of his patients were naturally able to split away from conscious thought. Since then, other personality traits have also been linked with DID, including a proneness to fantasy, an openness to experience, and a low threshold for stress (Cherry, â€Å"Multiple Personality Disorder†). The latter trait is particularly important in DID development. It is important to note that not everyone develops dissociative symptoms in response to extreme stress. However, the more horrible the events experienced, the more likely that the person will seek an escape. War veterans and accident victims often report slight perception problems and memory loss (Barlow and Durand 162). But for individuals suffering form DID, those perception problems are anything but â€Å"slight† and episodes of memory loss can be lifelong. While incidents such as natural disasters or invasive medical procedures during childhood can sometimes trigger DID, patients more often than not have the prolonged agony of severe childhood abuse to overcome (98 to 99 percent of cases include documented history of abuse) (Sidran Foundation 3), so their escapes must be more frequent and less fleeting. In response to the extreme physical and emotional pain accompanying their abuse—and more importantly to the overwhelming shame associated with keeping the secret—highly creative individuals may adapt their rich fantasy life as a lifeline (Sidran Foundation 4). If they cannot deal with the pain, maybe the â€Å"brave little boy† can protect the weak and fragile girl, or the â€Å"sexually promiscuous woman† can suppress those shameful and sickening feelings during sexual acts. DID patients can in essence be their own hypnotist. The early onset of DID is an important factor to consider in the disease’s etiology. Most DID patients experience their first symptoms before the age of six (â€Å"Dissociative Identity Disorder,† Yahoo Health). At an early age, many feelings and emotions are kept separate within the child’s mind. The toddler years are a crucial developmental period for the young child, as he or she begins to use experience to integrate these thoughts and emotions into a unified identity (â€Å"Dissociatve Disorders,† The Merck Manual). When a child experiences extreme stress during his formative period, integration is interrupted. Rather, the child remains in a state of separation, and learns that perhaps the best way to deal with his or her traumatic experiences is to separate them as well. In this way, the child can still maintain certain areas of the mind which can function in a healthy manner, while the trauma-filled areas are safely â€Å"tucked away† from con scious awareness (Sidran Foundation 5-6). Traumatic memories are able to be shielded from conscious awareness because such vivid instances of recall are encoded in a different manner. Rather than relying on words or other abstract methods, traumatic memories are stored at a somatosensory level, dependent on feelings and sensations. Such an encoding method means that these memories, although the most vivid, may be recalled on a more basic and instinctual level than on a conscious, intellectual level. This encoding may explain why after the early childhood onset, the symptoms usually reappear when certain new life experiences (people, emotions, or objects) are encountered. These experiences provide triggers or cues for the painful memories. Such triggers ay even be relatively minor in nature, because the patient’s stress-relieving system has become so highly desensitized. The frequent release of stress hormones during the patient’s develop-mental years results in a low stress threshold, meaning that the slightest provocation can cripple the patient emotionally (Kaplan, â€Å"Dissociative†). Consider the case of Wendy Howe as an example. You read "Who Am I?" in category "Papers" Wendy had been diagnosed with every type of disorder imaginable, from borderline personality disorder to schizophrenia. None of these diagnoses or subsequent treatments helped Wendy, however. In fact, her mental health had only deteriorated since the onset of two stressful events in her life: the loss of her job and the entrance of her son into an alcohol treatment program. Desperate for help, Wendy sought counsel from yet another clinician. After witnessing Wendy’s behavior and especially after hearing her family history, the clinician arrived at a quite different diagnosis: DID. Wendy presented with the classic background of a DID sufferer. Almost from the womb, Wendy had endured horrific abuse from her alcoholic and drug-dependent mother. The atrocities were almost too numerous to account: Wendy had been sold into prostitution; she had been burned, cut, and beaten frequently; the mother had also sexually abused Wendy, inserting objects into her and giving her forced enemas; Wendy witnessed the torture of her four siblings as well, and the siblings were often threatened into torturing and sexually assaulting each other; the mother’s boyfriends and Wendy’s grandfather also physically and sexually assaulted her, resulting in frequent trips to the emergency room (in fact, Wendy’s first child was the result of a rape at the hands of her mother’s boyfriend). Even as an adult, Wendy’s circumstances did not improve. She was raped an additional three times and sexually molested by a doctor while under anesthesia, and she also developed a drug problem (Brown and Barlow 107-110). Enter the alters. Wendy met all of the diagnostic criteria for DID. She reported ultimately futile attempts to distance herself from her pain, attempting to â€Å"put it behind her. † These attempts often left her feeling unreal or inhuman, producing the key diagnostic criteria of derealization and depersonalization. Wendy also reported large chunks of time when she could not account for her actions, and these instances were not due to drug or alcohol abuse or mere forgetfulness. In addition, she listed depression, self-mutilation, concentration problems, sleep problems, frequent flashbacks of her traumas, and occasional suicidal thoughts as additional symptoms (Brown and Barlow 105-106) (all of which are relatively common in patients with DID) (Sidran Foundation 2-3). However, the key diagnostic factor would soon make itself (or â€Å"themselves†) apparent. After a few sessions with Wendy, the clinician brought forth approximately twenty â€Å"alters† (Brown and Barlow 111). Alters are personalities or states of consciousness (aside from the primary host personality) which are capable of controlling a person’s thoughts and actions. While these manifestations may initially appear to be distinct personalities with their own ways of relating and perceiving, contemporary theory holds that all of the identities are aspects of one singular personality (Sidran Foundation 5). When a person possesses two or more of these â€Å"states of consciousness,† then the primary criterion for DID is fulfilled. Alters are often drastically different from the primary personality, exhibiting different personality quirks, mannerisms, physical characteristics (such as eyesight and handedness), and even different genders (â€Å"Dissociative Identity Disorder,† Yahoo Health). Case studies suggest that each alter provides a different function for the host personality. In Wendy’s case, for example, each alter dealt with a different type of abuse. One personality, which possessed no sensitivity to pain, emerged to deal with the burnings which Wendy endured. Another alter, created with no gag reflex, dealt exclusively with the forced oral sex Wendy performed on her grandfather. Yet another alter—this one a boy—emerged so that Wendy could feel invulnerable and strong during her rapes. Wendy also revealed autistic personalities (emotionally detached to better handle the torture), child personalities (gatekeepers of the earliest abuse memories), sexually promiscuous personalities (to endure the prostitution), and extrovert personalities (for â€Å"normal† activities). (Brown and Barlow 111-114). Another case, immortalized by the movie and book Sybil, documented the functions of alters as well. Sybil, now revealed as Shirley Ardell Mason, also experienced extreme maternal abuse as a child. In response to the traumas, â€Å"Sybil† developed sixteen distinct personalities. Each of Sybil’s personalities appeared to possess one primary personality trait: anger, fear, intellectuality, impulsiveness, strength, et al. Sybil’s therapist, Dr. Cornelia Wilbur, also brought â€Å"Vicky† into consciousness, the primary, all-knowing alter which some theorists refer to as the gatekeeper. The gatekeeper may be the only alter fully aware of all the other alters, and the only link to the patient’s full memories (â€Å"Dissociative Identity Disorder,† Wikipedia). Other symptoms of DID, experienced by Sybil and others, may include obsessive/ compulsive behavior, eating abnormalities, panic attacks, sexual dysfunction, substance abuse, headaches, varying phobias, and hallucinations or delusions. Some of these symptoms may be direct results of the DID (such as the â€Å"voices in the head† delusions), while others are byproducts, such as substance abuse (Sidran Foundation 2). Unfortunately, one of the most prevalent â€Å"by-products† of DID is suicide, as it is believed to be the mental disorder most likely to end in the taking of one’s own life. Like Wendy, DID patients may initially be assigned diagnoses of various mood or personality disorders. In fact, one study suggested that undiagnosed DID was prevalent in up to four percent of acute psychiatric inpatients (â€Å"Dissociative Disorders,† The Merck Manual). Perhaps the most common secondary diagnosis for DID patients is Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, due to crippling nature of the traumatic flashbacks evidenced in DID patients (Sidran Foundation 2). Without treatment, hosts and their alters are destined to be locked in eternal battle. The alters will never simply â€Å"go away,† because they are as much a part of the host, maybe more so, than the host is. Rather, integration should be the primary goal for the therapist. The therapist can teach host and alters how to â€Å"coexist† through long-term psychotherapy. The end result would ideally be an equal combination of patient and all â€Å"alters. † Sybil, for example, successfully completed integration therapy. Although Sybil was considered the â€Å"host,† her true personality was completely different: a â€Å"New Sybil† who retained all of the key aspects and memories of her other personas. This Sybil was able to lead a perfectly peaceful and well-adjusted existence in Kentucky until her death in 1998. In fact, her neighbors had no idea who their famous neighbor truly was (â€Å"Dissociative Identity Disorder,† Wikipedia). Key goals leading to Sybil’s (and other patients’) successful outcome would be identification and neutralization of â€Å"triggers,† trust with the analyst, and, most importantly, confrontation and reconciliation with those painful memories, emotions, and with the â€Å"alters† themselves (Barlow and Durand 165). Once a diagnosis is assigned (by screening tools such as the Dissociative Experience Scale and clinical interviews) (â€Å"Dissociative Identity Disorder,† Yahoo Health), treatment may involve a number of different therapeutic tools. Integration therapies typically involve analytical psychotherapy with hypnosis, in order to bring forth the alters as well as the sheltered memories. Once the therapist has established trust (vitally important for a patient who has learned since childhood not to trust) and makes contact with an alter, then the goal becomes to understand that alter’s function for the host (safety, stabilization, and symptom reduction). Then, the process removes to retrieving and confronting the painful memories which triggered the dissociation (Chu, â€Å"Guidelines†). Finally, alters and host â€Å"meet† and merge into one identity through hypnotherapy and imagery techniques (integration and rehabilitation). Long-term integration success rates stand at roughly sixty percent (Kaplan, â€Å"Dissociative†), with five or six years (of one to one-and-a-half hour sessions twice a week or, later, twice a month) being the typical time of achievement for full integration (â€Å"Dissociative Disorders,† The Merck Manual). One recent follow-up evaluation of 135 DID inpatients was illustrative of this success rate, as those patients who had achieved full integration demonstrated immense improvement on symptoms as compared to those patients who were not integrated (Ellason and Ross 832). For the remaining forty percent of patients or the many patients who resist the idea of full integration, alternative therapies may be needed, such as Eye Movement Desensitization, group therapy, inpatient residential treatment, pharmacotherapy (although drugs have consistently only provided aid as side-effect symptom reducers), or even the controversial electroconvulsive therapy. Further, secondary therapies may be necessary for any concurrent issues. For example, interpersonal therapy may be a useful tool for improving a patient’s social and familial relationships. Expressive therapy (such as the art therapy described with Wendy Howe) may also help the patient channel long-buried emotions through a â€Å"safe† outlet. Relaxation techniques are utilized as well, assisting the patient in better modulating intense physiological reactions to stress. These methods are especially important during the stabilization phase of therapy, as patients need to be as symptom-free and emotionally stable as possible before entering the long process of memory recovery and integration. Such processes are also important for the integrated patient, who must orient the new self as a functioning and well-adjusted member of society (Chu, â€Å"Guidelines†). Just ask Wendy Howe. After four years and 400 treatment sessions, Wendy no longer meets the DSM diagnosis for DID. Wendy’s treatment, much like Sybil’s, depended on the three aforementioned three key factors: a trusting relationship with her therapist, a confrontation with all of the traumas she had endured, and a true understanding of the role of her alters (as protectors rather than harmers). Wendy was able to trust an adult for the first time in her life when her therapist offered her a loan to help pay her mounting debts. This act proved vital in breaking down some of Wendy’s emotional walls. But Wendy’s true recovery was documented in the evolution of her â€Å"baby† sketchbook. Through drawings, Wendy took her â€Å"baby† through the process of growing up. As she truly began to view her alters as integral parts of herself rather than â€Å"diseases† needing to be cured, the â€Å"baby† evolved from a mutant, alien-like creature to a happy, laughing child surrounded by love and family Brown and Barlow 117-122. This sketchbook is a concrete symbol of the benefits of cognitive restructuring therapy as well. By constantly challenging her assumptions that she was simply â€Å"crazy,† Wendy was able to â€Å"alter† her whole outlook on herself and on life in general. Previously, Wendy could not connect her behaviors with her previous trauma. Through the cognitive aspect of her therapy, Wendy came to realize that she had developed a highly creative coping mechanism which in many ways saved her sanity and her life†¦. life which now includes a long-desired graphic arts degree, newfound friendships, a sweet romance, a close bond with her granddaughter, and an awakened determination to help other abuse survivors through her artwork (Brown and Barlow 122-125). Dissociative Identity Disorder remains one of the most enduring controversies within the psychiatric community. In spite of the documented cases and the current DSM recognition, many educated scholars still maintain that the disorder is a popular myth, brought about by socio-cultural factors of role-playing and a thirst for sensationalism (Chaves et al 507). Skeptics might use cases such as that of Hillside Strangler Kenneth Bianchi as an example. This convicted multiple murderer tried to blame his crimes on a killer alternate personality. He was soon found to be faking, an assumption solidified by the discovery of various psychology books in his jail cell. Such a case is an obvious argument for the invalidity of DID, correct? If one considers exactly how the murderer’s duplicity was discovered, the answer is no. In short, Bianchi could not fool the dissociative specialist assigned to evaluate him. His â€Å"alters† showed no visible personality differences and his behaviors simply did not ring true as a real DID patient (Cherry, â€Å"Multiple Personality Disorder†). The clinician was able to differentiate a false case from a real case. Why?.. because he had actual and very real DID patients as standards†¦ standards of true survival and hope: â€Å"I was Nobody all of my life and then came therapy. I will not believe there ever was a real nothingness–it was and can be a lack of resources–lack of knowledge†¦My therapy helped me build a solid foundation to who I am. Not me, but for the whole of Myself. There is a deep emptiness on many occasions. A deep dark hole where there seems no escape. A bottomless pit of despair. A grieving for the what-ifs and the should haves. An unspeakable rage. And an alienation from Myself and anyone else within or outside. There is sadness that happiness is just a foot away, but too far to actually grasp. Tears of exhaustion, the anxiety and frustrations, a want to sleep for the rest of this miserable life. And on occasion there is a glimmer of hope. Where dreams seem to come alive and make me feel alive. Oh yes, I remember†¦ I am†¦ I am alive. † (â€Å"DID,† Comcast) How to cite Who Am I?, Papers Who Am I Free Essays Elegy/Repetition Who Am I Jennifer Leaf Who am I Don’t know what to think Living every day Like It’s the first 5 How could it get any worse About life They told me to Just Hold on tight 10 Lost and out of control Don’t know who or where to turn Will they Just watch me burn 15 to afraid to fall Or am I afraid to loose it all Deniable, completely insane Will I ever find my way Will ever be the same Falling Down the drain Will I ever be someone 26 Or will I Just go out and run Day in And day out Don’t know where to go 30 Every day Every night Trying to see the light All I know is Who I could be 35 It’s all like a dream to 20 I want to scream and shout Don’t know why I’m yelling out Who am 1 40 And I want to scream and shout There is no doubt about it Because I don’t Know anymore 45 Too afraid to find life Through the darkness That I fight 50 Will I ever see the light Don’t know where to turn to Don’t know where to go I did, but now 55 I Just don’t know to afraid to back down Vive been fighting all my life But now it’s time to say goodbye but I will try to find my own light I will try to shine 60 â€Å"Who Am l† is an intensified poem about the question we all ask ourselves everyday our whole lives. Everyone does one of two things, accept the fact that they simply do not know or, pretend that they do. Life is full of questions that we cannot completely answer, Just ponder our entire lives. We will write a custom essay sample on Who Am I or any similar topic only for you Order Now Within this poem, the phrase, who am l, is constantly repeated. This poem is an elegy, mourning the lost life and the answer to the question asked throughout the poem. The phrase reoccurring in the poem emphasizes the question everyone asks themselves and the question most think they know the answer to. No one can entirely know who they are and what the future might bring. As a result of really not knowing, they pretend they do. â€Å"Don’t know who I am/ I did, but now/ I Just don’t know (49-51). Or, if they do not pretend they know who they are, they try to be someone else because there life is not written in stone. For some, they might go absolutely insane trying to find the truth behind the unanswerable question. Who am I There is no doubt about it (35-38). The repetition gives the poem an intense look on life and shows signs of confusion, frustration, and anger. The passion in increased in every stanza due to the fact that he speaker keeps on repeating those three words. This allows the reader to imagine that the person in trapped in her own mind, that is about to explode, with no way out. With this repetition, the reader can see the pain in the speaker’s words and how made her give up on everything else and is slowly eating her inside and killing her. She has one last attempt at trying to save herself by saying she can shine no matter what, but those three words enforce a tragic ending to her dark story. The elegy aspect of this poem is the loss of herself. The speaker Just gave up on life ND on herself and pities herself because she does not know who she is. The speaker does not realize that no one does and she will never know. Who am I Vive been fighting all my life But now it’s time to say goodbye (57-60). The speaker has given up on life because she cannot face the world as an outcast anymore. She need something to be proud of, something to believe in, something to fight for. She does not have the will to keep going like a shadow lurking through the night. Due to the fact that the three words, who am I is slowly annihilating her, the elegy is mainly found in the repetition. She cannot escape from this tragic death and by the last two lines, you know she can no longer fight it and her death is mourned. Her pride and dignity are lost every time those three words are said and that is additionally mourned. Here lies the pride, dignity, and life of the speaker of the poem, she will be missed. I wrote this poem because self-influence and the influence of others is one of the most powerful things. The words in the poem show how by wasting your life trying to answer and unanswerable question, you are leading ourselves into a trap that you cannot escape. These words can consume anyone and you can lead yourself to your own fatal end. By convincing yourself you have nothing to live for, you are blinding yourself from the truth behind the ever-so convincing lie. This poem is meant to have people believe in themselves and their capabilities and instead of trying to answer who you are as a person, embrace the mystery and be the best person you can be. â€Å"Who Am l† tells the world to fight for what you believe in, because there is always something to believe in. How to cite Who Am I, Papers Who Am I Free Essays â€Å"Who Am I† My name is and I will be telling you a little bit about my Background, interests, goals, and achievements. I am currently a junior at with my family of six which consists of my dad, mom, two younger brothers, and dog. I was born in a little town called Brownwood, Texas and moved to Illinois when I was 6 years old. We will write a custom essay sample on Who Am I or any similar topic only for you Order Now Some of my interest vary for example I am an avid watcher of old television shows such as the Walton’s and threes company. Another one of my interests is listening to music my favorite type of genre of music is country and rock some of my favorite artist include Jason Aldean, Blake Shelton, The Eagles, Led Zeppelin, and Lynyrd Skynyrd. Some of my goals that I hope to accomplish in the near future are attending the college of my choice, becoming a successful person in life and becoming a lawyer. Growing up as a child and until now, (My young adulthood) it has been mine and my parents dream for me to become a lawyer. I have decided to become a lawyer because I have always been fascinated with law, helping others with their problems, and the justice system. I have achieved many goals in my life my top achievements are graduating middle school, getting my driver’s license, and doing better in school. But I feel that getting my driver’s license is my greatest accomplishment of all because after getting my driver’s license I felt that I was in the stage of growing up and entering adulthood. I feel that my Background, goals, achievements, and interests all represent who I am and what I stand for. How to cite Who Am I, Essay examples

Class Matters free essay sample

Shadowy Lines that Still Divide,† by Janny Scott and David Leonhardt My Armenian-born parents are a clear representation of the promise of equal opportunity and spirit of freedom that the United States is meant to embody. As refugees of World War I, my family came to America in pursuit of liberty with their kinship and industriousness as their â€Å"only† resources. Today, my parents own 100% of their home on WaiKiki Beach in Hawaii, and paid for my tuition at the same private school President Obama attended. Their success story is a great testimony to US idealism, and its departure from the rigid class system of the Old World.At the same time, my parents’ journey to the New World came before the end of the industrial age, when capitalism, on a national scale, was still emerging. They were born in time to witness America at its height as a superpower, when access to â€Å"new† money, property, and quality education was available for most white ethnics to join the ranks of (at least) the middle class. We will write a custom essay sample on Class Matters or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page On the other hand, I was born after the Baby Boomers, when post WWII expansionism, the New Deal economy, and advances in civil rights were retrenching, and globalization and privatization were on the upswing.Coming of age in the post 60’s era and dealing with chronic mental health problems has changed my perspective on the accessibility of the American dream and its promise of equal opportunity. To put it mildly, things did not go according to my expectations. In my own case, I grew up with serious privilege, so a large part of my financial insecurity is of my own making; at the same time, my recovery has exposed me to a diversity of class and ethnic experiences, which have contributed to my awareness of how difficult self-sufficiency, let alone class mobility is for most people in my human network today.Consequently, I am much more cynical about the â€Å"rags to riches† story of America than the majority of others in my upper-middle class bracket. According to the da ta from a 2005 New York Times series of articles on class and mobility in the United States, optimism about the American dream is predominant in every income group; however, the idea that class is not a barrier to generating wealth in the US is especially prevalent in the type of affluent community in which I was raised (hooks 17). In the first chapter of Class Matters, entitled, â€Å"Shadowy Lines That Still Divide,† authors Janny Scott and David Leonhardt present an analysis of the NYT series. Most of the results were not surprising, since humans are emotional beings, and this effects their decision making more than statistical facts. National identity is important to Americans, and as a result, people are more motivated by the belief in â€Å"rags to riches† folklore than historical context and statistics.The â€Å"less is more† attitude towards government and Horatio Alger stories are part of American’s self-image, even if they are â€Å"punched up† a bit to underscore the notion of classlessness in the US (hooks 25). Evidencing these legends are true stories like those of my Armenian relatives who truly demonstrated an honorable work ethic and self-sacrificing behaviors. The point is not to minimize the hard-won success of the previous generations, but to acknowledge the role that structural forces had on assimilation, and shed some light on where some of these consequences of increased inequality and lower class mobility are coming from.I realize that government is not to blame for my current financial problems. Like many other children of my generation that take their privileges for granted, and manipulate well-intentioned parents to cosign our selfishness and laziness, I have an incredibly far way to go before I start holding the conservatives responsible for my current job or housing insecurity.It’s just to make the point that since the 1970’s, in this so-called meritocracy, the top 1% of earners increased their income by 139%, while the middle fifth received an increase of 17% over the same period of time (hooks 19). Probably, it is up to my generation and the ones that follow to get our individual acts together and start being more of service in, both, our personal lives and in our efforts to reform the system so it functions more equitably across class divides.Fortunately, I already see positive changes occurring in this direction, which are not reflected in Chapter 1 of Class Matter’s opinion polls because these surveys do not take age into account (hooks 6-7). I think my cynicism about the American Dream is catching on more among the younger age groups, who are graduating with huge debt and Bachelor’s degrees with few meaningful income opportunities attached to them.Given the results of the 2008 Presidential election and persistent economic problems such as rising college tuition and unemployment, the younger generations are no longer relying on the promise that they will be better off than their parents. According to exit polls, Obama won big among young, minority voters, and race played less of a role in the election than age (NYT, â€Å"Exit Polls†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ). John McCain did well with older Americans who tend to still be wedded to their stories of unlimited prosperity through hard work and self-sacrifice as being.

Evaluation of the Sculpture Virgin and Child free essay sample

Virgin and Child Scuplture After several visits to the information desk and walking through about two dozen different galleries, I finally found the sculpture of Virgin and Child. She stands on a pedestal totaling approximately 6 feet tall, but the sculpture alone is only about half the height. There is a placard on the pedestal citing historical information. The sculpture is French Gothic and is made from marble. She was sculpted somewhere between the years 1325 and 1350. It is also noted that the sculpture is part of the Samuel H Kress Collection, I assume this means he is either the sculptor or owner of the piece. We can assume from the title that this sculpture is a representation of The Virgin Mary and baby Jesus. Starting from her head, she is wearing a crown that at one time had five points, but now only has four as the back is broken. Each point is designed to look somewhat like a leave and was probably imagined to be made of gold. We will write a custom essay sample on Evaluation of the Sculpture Virgin and Child or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Under her crown she is also wearing a headdress, like a hood almost, which is indistinguishable from her robe-like dress. In her right hand she is holding something which is now broken. The object in her hand does not extend any lower than her hand and is only about one inch in length above her hand. There is a hole in the top of the piece in her hand, as if something once fit down into it and is now broken. On her left she is holding a baby, which as we assumed above is baby Jesus. Both of the baby’s arms are missing, his left disconnected at the shoulder and his right disconnected right above the elbow. There is a crevice in the baby’s left leg, which allows us to assume that he was once holding something in his right arm that crossed his body and rested in his lap. He is wrapped from his waist down is a cloth robe, but his right toes are exposed when facing the sculpture. If you stand to the right of it, you can see the bottom of his toes on his left foot. Her feet are also exposed, but she looks to be wearing some kind of shoe or slipper because her feet are smooth. There are holes on her robe, her crown, and her neck. The ones on her robe and crown were all about a centimeter or a centimeter and a half in diameter, and about a quarter to a half a centimeter deep. They varied in shape, some were round and some where square or diamond shaped. The holes were about two to three inches apart on both her robe and her crown. One could assume these holes once housed some sort of precious stone. There were three holes on her neck. The one in the center was very shallow, possibly only a few milliliters, but about an inch to an inch and a half in diameter. On each side, with about an inch between each, were two more of the smaller deeper holes. The detail in this sculpture was immaculate. There was detail in almost every strand of hair on both her and the baby’s heads. The baby’s feet had distinct toes which even included toe nails. As the baby’s feet did, her hands portrayed detail even to include her fingernails. They both had complete detail in their faces, with proportional eyes, noses, and lips. They were also proportional in relation to each other. The rest of the body proportions for her were also seemingly correct in the fact that she did not have oversized breasts, or stomach. As I was on my quest to find this sculpture in this museum I had encountered several paintings and sculptures similar to this one, mostly titled â€Å"Madonna and Child†. However this one stood apart. Something about this particular sculpture was extremely beautiful. And therefore it stood alone in a gallery set apart from the others, hopefully meant to exemplify its individual beauty.

Torts; CyberTorts; Strict Liability; Products Liability; Consumer

Torts; CyberTorts; Strict Liability; Products Liability; Consumer Torts; CyberTorts; Strict Liability; Products Liability; Consumer Protection – Essay Example TORTS Cyber Torts, Strict Liability, Products Liability, Consumer Protection Introduction The business world is governed largely by 2 types of law, contract law and tort law. Contract law pertains to the specific terms and conditions involved in the supply of a particular product or service. On the other hand, tort law governs all business practices (Cornell 2011) It is based on unwritten common law, although it can be reinforced by statutes passed by the legislature. Aside from these statutes, court decisions are based on precedent, that is, previous cases involving similar facts. Torts are wrongs committed against individuals and groups and can be intentional or unintentional. Intentional torts are wrongs done deliberately and therefore criminal and dealt with by criminal law and are uninsurable. On the other hand, unintentional torts are those committed inadvertently often due to negligence or carelessness and are therefore usually insurable. Examples of torts are cyber, strict li ability, and product liability, for which consumer protection is required. Cyber Torts Cyber Torts are simply wrongs committed over the internet which cause some kind of harm to the internet user. (Talbot 2010) Examples include identity theft, illegal piracy of electronic property, arranging meetings for criminal transactions, false impersonation to obtain information and sending out vast amounts of e-mails containing harmful data or spam. As it is often difficult to determine who is responsible protective software is being developed. The most common cyber tort is identity theft followed by home shopping catalog sales. Other examples are trespass to chattels, conversion, cyber stalking/harassment and defamation. An example of the latter is a case where a female teenager befriended a male counterpart on My Space who made nasty comments about her resulting in her suicide. In defamation the negative comments must be false as truth is an absolute defense. They must involve the unprivile ged publication of a statement to third parties (internet users) by at least the negligent acts of the publisher and cause perceivable damage to a perspective plaintiff. They are considered especially dangerous because of the global reach of the internet and the potential for source anonymity. Conversion is the unlawful application of the personal goods of another by the taker or a third party other than the owner and/or destroying or altering its’ nature. The required elements for a lawsuit are ownership or right of possession by the plaintiff, the defendants’ conversion by a wrongful act and causing harm to the plaintiff. Similarly, trespass to chattels requires meddling with a chattel in possession of another resulting in a) dispossession of the chattel, b) deprivation of the use of the chattel, c) impairment of the condition of the chattel and d) harm to the legal possessor of the chattel. Strict Liability Strict liability differs from ordinary liability in that a plaintiff does not have to prove the defendants’ negligence caused them harm, only that they sustained damage or injury resulting from an appropriate use of the defendants’ product or service.(Cornell 2011) For example, an employer may be held liable for the torts of an employee, unless the employer can demonstrate that the employee performed contrary to the employers’ instructions. In a products liability case where strict liability has been imposed by legislation because the product is inherently dangerous, purchasers of the product and injured others only have to prove the item was defective, that the defect caused the injury and the defect rendered the product inherently dangerous, even if the defendant exercised utmost care and was not negligent. The only defenses in such cases would be if the defendant could prove the plaintiff misused and/or tampered with the product causing it to become dangerous. In cases of harm caused by animals, strict liability is n ot usually imposed on owners unless by legislation or it can be shown the owner knew of the animals’ propensity to cause harm or it is considered a wild animal or did not take appropriate steps to restrain them. Another situation that could attract liability is the operation of an explosives factory in an urban area. Products Liability Products liability law is derived mainly from tort law although it can be codified by statute. (Cornell 2011)For example, regardless of any warranties supplied by the manufacturer products must be reasonably fit for the purpose intended and free from defects which could cause harm to the consumer and others. Assuming defects are caused by unintentional torts, they are generally insurable. Strict liability is usually applicable because it is often difficult for a consumer to determine whether the cause of the loss is a design, manufacturing or marketing defect, that is failure provide the consumer with accurate and complete instructions. Therefo re all parties involved in the manufacture and sale of the product are jointly and severally responsible for damage and injury caused although insurance companies under a liability policy are required to pay only for resulting damage and injuries, not replacing the defective product itself. While strict liability may apply, there are defenses available. For example, if it can be shown that the consumer caused the damage themselves by dropping,, abusing or otherwise misusing the product, all defendants could escape liability, If a retailer can show that the product was received and sold in a sealed container they avoid liability. Generally, if any party can show that it would have been impossible for them to have contributed to the loss in any way, they can escape liability but the onus is on them to prove that. Consumer Protection The US Federal Trade Commission publishes various articles to educate the public on how to avoid scams or rip offs in different types of purchases and how to optimally exercise their rights.(Federal Trade Com.2009)Various jurisdictions have government consumer protection departments and organizations such as the Better Business Bureau and trade associations for the product involved can investigate on behalf of the consumer and assist in resolving legitimate complaints without litigation. Conclusion Aside from contractual obligations, tort law imposes requirements on the design, manufacturer and distributor of products. It is up to consumers to educate themselves on their rights if they feel they have been victims of tort infractions and to seek appropriate assistance when necessary. References1) Talbot, Jonathon Tyler† Cyber Crimes† Penn State April 19, 2010 retrieved from https://webspaces.psu.edu (1ST432_SP10_TEAM4_CyberCrimesand Torts.2) â€Å"Products Liability Law† Legal Information Institute Cornell University Law School Aug. 19. 2011 retrieved from law.cornell.edu.3) â€Å"Strict Liability† Legal Inf ormation Institute Cornell University Law School Aug. 19. 2011 et al.4) â€Å"Tort Law an Overview† Legal Information Institute Cornell University Law School Aug. 19, 2011 et al.5) â€Å"Protecting America’s Consumers Federal Trade Commission Feb. 18, 2009† retrieved from www.ftc.gov/bcp/consumers.htm.

Law for Accounting assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Law for Accounting assignment - Essay Example Formation of Contract is based on firstly, an ‘offer’, which must be followed by an acceptance. Secondly, there must be consideration, intention to create legal relations and sufficient certainty. The main starting point for the conclusion of a contract can be found in Smith v Hughes1, where both a subjective as well as objective test was laid down in order to determine the existence of a contract. The subjective test determines the actual intention of the contracting parties, whereas the objective test ascertains what had been said by the parties, what they did and not and what their actual intention of saying or doing was. As per Professor Atiyah, the issue of offer and acceptance has been determined by courts in two ways, that is ‘reason forwards’ and ‘reason backwards’, the former is where existence of offer and acceptance are determined first and then the conclusion on the dispute is made; the latter is where the courts can reason from the appropriate solution back to the legal concepts of offer and acceptance. An offer has been defined as an expression of willingness by one party known as the offeror, to contract or be bound on stated terms, provided that such terms are accepted by the party to whom the offer is made that is the offeree. The courts have drawn a distinction between an offer and an invitation to treat, as the latter is merely an expression of willingness by one party to enter into negotiations and is not unconditional and there is a lack of intention to create legal relations. The most important and land mark cases which distinguished between an offer and invitation to treat are of Gibson v Manchester City Council2 and Storer v Manchester City Council3. In Gibson, where treasurer had sent a letter to Mr. Gibson, stating that council may be prepared to sell the house, was held to be an invitation to treat, which was further confirmed by the fact that Mr. Gibson was asked to make a formal application to purchase the house. The courts therefore took into account the correspondence between the parties. However, in Storer the courts found that a contract had come into existence as negotiations had moved beyond what had happened in Gibson but an exchange of contracts had not taken place. These cases clearly point out that fact that judges can interpret and differ in the results and so the decision would be said to be based on its own facts. An offer should be differentiated from a mere statement of price that is an enquiry as to the price. (Harvey v. Facey)4 Invitation to treat has been defined as an expression of willingness of a party to enter into negotiations with another with the hope that a contract would be reached at the end of such negotiations. (Fisher v Bell)5. As for advertisements, it has been strictly said to be an invitation to treat (Partridge v Crittenden)6, however, the courts have interpreted advertisements in a manner which allows for certain exceptions to be create d and the main reasons for that has been cited to be intention to be bound and certainty (Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co.)7. Further, the advertisement of an auction sale is generally only an invitation to treat (Harris v Nickerson)8. The opinions as to when an offer is made have differed. In respect of the advertisement that had been placed by Serena in the Sunday Times Style, the first and foremost question is whether such advertisement was an invitation to

Discovering the American Past in World War 1 Essay

Discovering the American Past in World War 1 - Essay Example During World War 1, Great Britain and the Germans had navigational barriers. Blockades used by Great Britain were designed to cut central powers off from the war while Americans commercial vessels bonded by the Germans were stopped (Wheeler, Becker and Glover 133). Besides, detention and searching of German ships by the British navy was quite often. The Confinement of German vessels was to stop them from participating in the war and make them a vulnerable target. However, the president of the United States by then, Wilson, protested detention of Germans vessels by the British policy many times but gained no positive results. British navy thought, giving in to the presidents’ demand, would have deprived them their principal military asset as the British army. The presence of the Germans during the war highly gained recognition and feared by the Americans. They perceived the Germans as strong and well-equipped people who would have changed everything and won the war against them . In addition, the Germans blockade was more dangerous since majority of American trade was with France and England. Therefore, the Americans did not trade with Germans, and this could have accelerated their war against the Americans. During the war, different emotions developed within the participating parties of the war. The emotions had to be controlled by the development of propaganda to enable unity of multiethnic and pluralistic society that was behind the war. Moreover, publicity attracted the sufficient number of men in the army services to elicit universal civilian support for the men. Additionally, propaganda assisted in influencing civilians to help was efforts by purchasing war bonds and other actions (Wheeler, Becker and Glover 136). Wheeler, Becker and Glover argue that, in achieving the control of emotions during the war, it entailed propaganda techniques advancement alongside extreme care (138). The propaganda had to attain two features in enabling emotion control and calmness.   First, it was to ensure the portrayal of Allied and American service members as the best and, second, the representation of enemy in the worst possible manner.  

Technology and Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Technology and Business - Essay Example In a way, Blackberry is the next generation in portable access that began with the introduction of mini computers and then laptops and now to handheld devices. It is an improvement over the PDA (Personal Digital Assistant). The Blackberry has its own operating system that has been developed by RIM (Research in Motion), the company that has pioneered the device. There is provision for third party vendors to provide add-on software. Currently, Blackberry allows for integration with the Microsoft Exchange, Novell and Lotus software. Blackberry can be thought of as a mix of the WAP access in mobile phones and the portability of a PDA. The latest versions of Blackberry have the GPS (Geographical Position Service) enabled along with the radio feature. This is a marked improvement over the earlier versions and it shows the extent to which the device has evolved over the years. The Blackberry device is portable and allows for flexibility and â€Å"on the move† access of the applications for professionals in any field. It is the technology of choice for senior management and those who have multiple meetings in a day. As mentioned in the previous section, it is a boon for anyone who spends a lot of time away from his or her desk and yet needs to access the emails and know the schedule for the day. Many companies have taken to the Blackberry devices in a major way and it is not uncommon to see executives sporting these devices. The later versions of the device have text messaging and group chat enabled along with the internet fax and other features that enable the users to access the network simultaneously. More and more companies are going in for versions of the device with lots of gigabytes of memory and storage space so as to enable the users to have applications like Microsoft Word integrated and make the users access them â€Å"on demand†. This integration makes the transition from desktop applications to the handheld devices and

The Seven Layer Osi Model

The Seven Layer Osi Model Seven-layer OSI model is a logical layer and developed by the ISO international standardization organization. The purpose of this layer is to understand the transmission of data flows from source to destination and to identify problems during data transmission. The seven layers include Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data link and Physical layer. The sequence of layer names to be remembered by this phrase All people seem to need data processing. The following is a general description of each layer. OSI reference model is now being considered as the main model for the internetworking and inter computing. The seven layers divide the task of data transmission in sub tasks and then complete the data transmission cycle. QUESTION 1 In the 1980s, the European-dominated International Standards Organization (ISO) began to develop its Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) networking suite. OSI has two major components: an abstract model of networking (the Basic Reference Model, or seven-layer model), and a set of concrete protocols. Briefly explain each of the seven OSI layer included their function and usage in data communication and networking. OSI Reference Model OSI reference model (Open Systems Interconnection) illustrates how information from a software application on a computer moves through a network medium to a software application on another computer. OSI reference model is conceptually divided into 7 layers where each layer has a specific network function, as described by figure 1.1 (with no physical media). This model was created based on a proposal made by the International Standards Organization (ISO) as a first step toward international standardization of protocols used at various layers. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½This model is called ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because this model is intended for sharing open systemà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½.[1] Open Systems can be interpreted as an open system to communicate with other systems. For his brief, we will call this model as the OSI model only. Figure 1.1. OSI Reference Model OSI model has seven layers. The principles used for the seven layers are: 1. A layer must be made when needed different levels of abstraction. 2. Each layer shall have certain functions. 3. The function of each layer should be chosen carefully in accordance with the provisions of international protocol standards. 4. Layer boundaries labored to minimize the flow of information through the interface. 5. The number of layers must be quite a lot, so that different functions do not need to be united in a single layer outside needs. However, the number of layers must also be cultivated as little as possible so that the network architecture does not become difficult to use. Below discuss about each layer of the OSI model sequentially, starting from the bottom layer. It should be noted that the OSI model itself is not network architecture, because this model does not explain the exact services and protocols to be used on any layer. OSI model only explains about what should be done by a layer. However, ISO has also established standards for all layers, although these standards do not constitute a reference model itself. Each layer has been declared as a separate international standard. Characteristics of the OSI Layers To seven layers of OSI reference model can be divided into two categories, namely upper and lower layers. The top layer of the OSI model deals with application issues and generally implemented only in software. The highest layer (application layer) is the cover prior to the user (users), both users and application layer processes interact with software applications that contain a communication component. The term upper layer is sometimes used to refer to some of the top layer of another coating layer in the OSI model. The bottom layer of the OSI model to control data transport issues. Physical layer and data link layer implemented in hardware and software. The layers below the others are generally only implemented in software. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½The lowest layer, the physical layer is a layer of cover for the physical network medium (cable networks), and as responsible for the placement of information on the network mediaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½.[2] The following table shows the separation of the two l ayers in the layers of the OSI model. Application Application Overlay Presentation Session Transport Data Transport Undercoat Network Data Link Physical Table 1.2 Separation of top layer and bottom layer of the OSI model Protocol OSI model provides a conceptual framework for communication between computers, but this model is not a method of communication. In fact communication can occur due to use of communication protocols. In the context of data networks, a protocol is a formal rules and agreements that determine how computers exchange information over a network medium. A protocol implements one or more of the layers of the OSI. A wide variation of the communication protocol, but all maintains the flow in one group: the LAN protocols, WAN protocols, network protocols, and routing protocols. LAN protocols operate at the physical and data link layer of the OSI model and define communication over various LAN media. WAN protocols operate at the third lowest layer of the OSI model and define communication over various WAN. Routing protocol is a network layer protocol that is responsible for determining the road and traffic arrangements. Finally, the network protocol is different from the upper layer protocols th at exist in a series of protocols. Layers of the OSI Model Physical Layer Physical Layer functions in the delivery of raw bits into the channel of communication. Design issues that must be considered here is to ensure that when one side sends data 1 bit, the data must be accepted by the other side as a bit too, and not 0 bit. The question that arises in this case is: how many volts should be used to declare a value of 1? And how many volts is also required for the number 0?. It takes a bit how microsecond will be exhausted? Is the transmission can be processed simultaneously in both directions? How many pins are owned by the network and what is the use of each pin? In general, design problems are found here related to the mechanical, electrical and procedural interfaces, and physical media which is under the physical layer. Data Link Layer The main task of the data link layer is as raw data transmission facility and transforms the data to a channel that is free from transmission errors. Before forwarded who work layer, data link layer perform this task by allowing the sender meme cage breaking input data into a number of data frames (usually numbering in the hundreds or thousands of bytes). Then the data link layer transmits these frames in sequence, and process the acknowledgment frames sent back by the recipient. Because the physical layer send and receive bit stream without regard to the meaning or architectural frame, then depending on the data link layer was to create and recognize frame boundaries it. This can be done by affixing a special bit to the beginning and end of the frame. If incidental bit patterns can be found in the data, it is necessary to pay special attention to ensure that the pattern is not incorrectly considered as the boundaries of the frame. The occurrence of noise in the channel can damage the frame. In this case, the data link layer software on the source machine to send back the broken frame. However, transmission of the same frame over and over again can cause duplication of frames. Duplicate frames need to be sent if an acknowledgment frame from the receiver who returned to the sender has been lost. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½Depending on the layer is to overcome the problems that caused the destruction, loss and duplication of frames. The data link layer provides some service classes for the network layer. This service class can be distinguished in terms of quality and priceà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½.[4] Other problems that arise in the data link layer (and also most of the layers above it) are seeking the smooth process of data transmission from the sender to the recipient a slow speed. Mechanism of regulation of traffic data should allow the sender to know the amount of buffer space owned by the recipient at a certain moment. Often setting flow and error handling is done in an integrated manner. Channel that can send data in both directions also can be problematic. So therefore need to be considered for the data link layer software. Problems that can arise here is that the frames acknowledgement flowing from A to B compete with each other ahead of the flow from B to A. Settlement of the best (piggy backing) could have been used, then we shall discuss it in depth. Broadcast networks have an additional problem in the data link layer. The problem is in terms of controlling access to a shared channel. To fix this you can use a special sub layer of data link layer, called the medium acc ess sub layer. Network Layer Network layer serves to control operation of the subnet. Important design problem is how to determine the route packets from source to destination. Route can be based on static tables are linked to network. Route can also be determined at the beginning of a conversation such as a terminal session. Finally, the route can also be very dynamic; it can be different for each package. Therefore, the delivery route of a packet depends on network load at that time. If at the same time in a subnet there are too many packets, then there is the possibility of the packages arrive at the same time. This can lead to bottlenecks. Congestion control as it is also the task of the network layer. Because the sub net operators expect the good fortune of his job duties. There is often some accounting function built at the network layer. To make billing information, at least the software should calculate the number of packets or characters or bits that are sent by each customer. Accounting becomes more co mplicated, when a packet crosses a country that has a different rate. The move packets from one network to another can also cause problems that are not small. Addressing mode used by a network can be different from the methods used by other network. A network may be unable to receive the package at all because the packet size is too big. Protocol was be different, as well as others. Network layer has been given the task to solve all these problems, allowing different networks interconnected to each other. Transport Layer The basic function is the transport layer receives data from the session layer, split the data into pieces smaller if necessary, forwards the data to the network layer, and ensure that all pieces of data can arrive at the other side correctly. Moreover, all this must be done efficiently, and aims to protect the upper layers of the changes in hardware technology that can not be avoided. Under normal circumstances, the transport layer makes the network connection is different for each transport connection which is required by the session layer. When the transport connection requires a high throughput, then the transport layer can make a lot of network connections. Transport layer divide sending data to a number of networks to increase throughput. On the other hand, if the manufacture or maintenance of the network connection is quite expensive, transport layer can combine multiple transport connections to the same network connection. This is done to make this merger is not seen by the s ession layer. Transport layer also determines the type of service for the session layer, and in turn the type of service for users of the network. Type of the most popular transport layer is a channel error-free point to point that forward messages or bytes in accordance with the order delivery. However, there are also other types of transport services. The services are transport isolated messages that do not guarantee order of delivery, and broadcast messages to a number of purposes. Type of service determined when the connection starts. Transport layer is a layer end to end in fact, from source to destination. In other words, a program on the source machine to bring the conversation with the same program on the target machine. In the lower layers, there are protocols between the two machines and other machines that are close by. Protocol is not located in the outer or the source machines outer purpose machine, which may be separated by a router. The differences between layers 1 to 3 are intertwined and layer 4 to 7 are end to end. This can be explained as shown in Figure 1-1. In addition to merging multiple streams of messages into a single channel, transport layer must be careful in defining and deciding on the network connection. This process requires a naming mechanism, so that a process on a machine has a way to explain with whom the machine wants to talk. Also there should be a mechanism to regulate the flow of information, so that the flow of information from a fast host does not overwhelm a slow host. Such mechanism is called flow control and plays an important role in the transport layer (also in other layers). Flow control between hosts with different hosts by controlling the flow of the router with the router. Well find out later that the same principles used for both types of the control. Session Layer Session layer allows users to establish sessions with other users. A session in addition allows ordinary data transport, as did the transport layer, also provides special services for specific applications. A session is used to allow one user logs into a remote timesharing system or to move files from one machine to another to machine. A session layer service is to implement the dialogue control. Sessions can allow traffic to move in two directions at one time or only in one direction only. If at one time in traffic only in one direction only analogous to a single railway line, the session layer helps to determine who is entitled to use the channels turn at an instant. Service sessions are described as token management. For some protocols, it is important to ensure that both parties concerned do not perform surgery at the same time. To regulate this activity, the session layer provides tokens that can turn. Only a party that holds the token is allowed performs critical operations. Another session is a synchronization service. Take for example that can occur when trying to transfer files that lasted 2 hours from one machine to another machine with the possibility of having an interval of 1 hour between the two crashes that can occur. After each transfer is canceled, the transfer may need to be repeated again from scratch, and may experience another failure. To reduce the possibility of this problem, the session layer can insert a specific sign to the flow of data. Therefore, if a crash, only the data that is after the sign is to be transferred back. Presentation Layer Presentation layer performs certain functions that are required to ensure the discovery of a common solution for certain problems. Presentation Layer does not allow users to solve their own problems. Unlike the layers underneath are only moving the bits from one place to another place, presentation layer attention to syntax and semantics of information transmitted. One example is the encoding of data presentation service. Most users do not move a random string of binary bits. The users exchange data just as the name, date, amount of money, and bills. The items are expressed in the form of a string of characters, integer numbers, floating point numbers, a data structure formed from some simpler items. There is a difference between one computer to another computer in a given code to declare a string of characters (for example, ASCII and Unicode), integer (for example, complement and complement one two), and so forth. To allow the two computers that have different presentation to commun icate, data structures to be exchanged can be expressed by means of abstract, in accordance with standard encoding to be used on line. Presentation layer-data set and convert this abstract structure of representation that is used on a computer into a network standard representation, and vice versa. Application Layer Application layer consists of a variety of protocols. For example there are hundreds of incompatible terminal types in the entire world. Take the situation where full-screen editor is expected to work on a network with a variety of terminals, which each have different screen layouts, have a way different sequence of keystrokes for the insertion and deletion of text, move the sensor and so forth. One way to overcome such problems in data is to define an abstract network virtual terminal, so editors and other programs can be written for each corresponding. To handle each terminal type, one part of the software must be written to map the network virtual terminal functions to the actual terminal. For example, when moving the cursor editor virtual terminal into the left corner of the screen, the software should issue the appropriate command sequence to achieve the cursor. All virtual terminal software is in the application layer. Another application layer function is file transfer. File systems from one another have different naming conventions, how to express the lines of text are different, and so forth. Transfer files from a system different to other systems that require treatment to overcome the lack of this compatible. The task is also a job application layer, such as electronic mail, remote job entry, directory lookup, and various general purpose facilities and other special purpose facilities. CONCLUSION The process of sending a data to be sent to the recipient. Sender processes submitting data to the application layer, which then add the user application header, the AH (which may also be empty), the front end and submit the results to the presentation layer. Presentation layer can form these data in various ways and may just add a header at the front end, which is given by the session layer. It is important to remember that the presentation layer is not aware of the data which are marked AH by application layer is the data users really are. The process of granting this header repeated until the data reaches the physical layer, where data will be transmitted to other machines. On these machines, all headers were be removed one by one until reaching the admissions process. Figure1 .3 Examples of how the OSI model used The key here is that although the actual data transmission is each layer is programmed as though the transmission in question took place horizontally. For example, when transport layer delivery get a message from the session layer, transport layer will then affix the transport layer header and sends it to the receiver transport layer. INTRODUCTION Computer networks are a tool, known also as nodes, relating to media liaison. Node may consist of a computer, printer or other device to send and receive data generated by other nodes, nodes in the network. Media Liaison, also known as communication media. On this day, there are various types of networks, including local area network (LAN) and wide area network (WAN). The largest network in the world is the Internet. Edit Development. Network started with a small building, the connection about ten computers and a printer. The technology that exists at the time the computer is connected to limit the number and length of communications cable that can be allowed on the network. In the early nineties the communication cable can be pulled so far about 600 feet to the extension of approximately 30 computers only. This network is suitable for a small organization known as local area network (LAN). LANs typically connect devices in a building or a building. A LAN can be built only with two computers and a printer or can be extended only in one building to include audio and video software. LAN size is limited to a distance of several kilometers only. LAN with data rates from 4 Mbps to 100 Mbps. Network connections from different countries has established the development of LAN to the wide area network (WAN). WAN can be sending data, audio and video at distances up to cover a country or continent or around the world. QUESTION 2 Briefly explain at least four (4) topologies of networks and suggest how we implement these topologies in networking. MAIN BODY Network can be of any of the following three types: Local Area Network: Figure: 2.1 Local Area Network Local Area Network (LAN) is a limited range of geographical barriers such as a laboratory, a school or building. In a typical LAN configuration, one of the computers used as file server file server that functions to keep all the software that controls the network. All computers are connected to the server file known as a workstation. Computer workstation comprising a desktop computer specifications less than the server and also may have software on the disk severity. Cable used to connect the LAN via network card installed on each computer. Metropolitan Area Network: Figure : 2.2 Metropolitan Area Network Town Area Network (MAN) covers a wider geographical area as a region or city. Widespread area network connecting a number of Local Area Network in a place to enable sharing of information carried. Universities and government agencies Wide spread Area Network to communicate with the other communities and private industries. One example is the MAN MIND Network, located in Pasco County, Florida which enables communication between the Central Pasco Media Center Main Frame using a telephone line, coaxial cable, and wireless communication providers. Wide Area Network: Figure : 2.3 Wide Area Network Widespread Area Network (WAN) covers a wider area as a state, nation and world. To create a WAN requires systems across the sea or the use of microwave or satellite. Use WAN enables communication between the states can be implemented quickly. Configuring the WAN is complex and requires a hardware multiplexing multiplexer for LAN and MAN links for access to a comprehensive communications network such as the Internet. Network Topology: Figure : 3.1 Network Topology à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½A computer network system using communication line that connects computers to each otherà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½.[5] There are various methods that can be used for the communication and is known as topology. Topology can be considered as a virtual shape or structure of a network. This shape actually does not correspond to the actual physical design of the devices on the computer network. The computers on the home network can be arranged in a circle shape but it does not necessarily mean that it presents a ring topology. There are few types of topologies for computer networks, namely: Star Network Topology Figure :3.1.1 Star Network Topology Star topology is a network where all computers or other devices connected to the central distribution system, known as the Hub or Switch. Hub or Switch is responsible for managing the computer network. All messages or data that is sent to a central control hub for avoid collisions from occurring. There are two operations that used by the hub or switch that is operating broadcast and the operations of the transition switching. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½Distribution operations, hub or switch will make the delivery of data received from one station to all the routes connecting them. In transition operations, the hub or switch will save the data received and sends the data through a receiving stationà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½.[3] Each node can be connected to the network and can be removed at any time without affecting the whole system of directly by. Furthermore, if one node does not work, it will not affect other computer networks. Any damage to the connection between the hub nodes will not affect the system as a whole, but if the damage occurred on the hub, the entire system will also be affected. The main weakness of this topology is that it requires a fairly high cost in view of all systems connected to it computers, scanners, printers, etc. requires its own cable. Ring Network Topology Figure :3.1.2 Ring Network Topology In local area networks where the ring topology is used, each computer is connected to the network in a closed loop or ring. The Messages or data to be transferred in order according to the same path in the same ring. Network technology was first used by IBM systems with Type I in the category of cable shielded Twisted Pair STP. Each data node will be checked by delivery location. If not the same node strike, it will be submitted to the next node and this will continue until the delivery address the same node strike. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½As the data is transferred by the same route as the sequence of the potential for violations of data that appears to be similar to the network and can be removed at any time without affecting the whole system of directly byà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½.[6] However, one problem that arises is if a node fails, the entire network will probably also be affected. Arrangement of nodes in this topology is almost the same physically as star topology; only a logical was a ring. The attachment is required in this topology is called Multi Station Access Unit (MSAU). MSAU is installed in a ring-shaped network where it is more than one unit. If only one unit only used the physical topology is similar to the star connection. Bus Network Topology Figure :3.1.3 Bus Network Topology Bus topology, are also known as the Ethernet using a line length where each node in relation to him. Data will be sent by each node in the hope that it does not collide with data transmitted from other nodes. If it happens, the node will try again until successful. Weakness of the bus topology is in terms of maintenance. It is quite difficult to maintain in view of the connection is in the form of a series. In the event of damage to any line at any node, it will cause the entire system will not work. In addition to accurately locate points or nodes those are damaged. Each node can be connected to the network and can be removed at any time without affecting the whole system directly. Furthermore, if one node does not work nor does it affect other computer networks. The other advantage is there in this topology is that it uses a single cable and requires no additional hardware to build the network. But it does not require a very high cost for maintenance purposes. Tree Network Topology Figure :3.1.4 Tree Network Topology The tree topology is essentially a hybrid of the bus and star layouts. It is also known as a hierarchical topology and has a central root node that is connected to one or more nodes of a lower hierarchy. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½In a symmetrical hierarchy, each node in the network has a specific fixed number of nodes connected to those at a lower levelà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½.[3] Apart from these basic types of network topologies, there are hybrid network topologies, which are composed of a combination of two or more basic topologies. These network mappings aim at harnessing the advantages of each of the basic topologies used in them. Network topologies are the physical arrangements of network nodes and wires. What is interesting is that the inanimate nodes and wires turn live for the transmission of information. Mesh Network Topology Figure :3.1.5 Mesh Network Topology In a full mesh network, each network node is connected to every other node in the network. Due to this arrangement of nodes, it becomes possible for a simultaneous transmission of signals from one node to several other nodes. In a partially connected mesh network, only some of the network nodes are connected to more than one node. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½This is beneficial over a fully connected mesh in terms of redundancy caused by the point-to-point links between all the nodesà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½.[5] The nodes of a mesh network require possessing some kind of routing logic so that the signals and the data traveling over the network take the shortest path during each of the transmissions. CONCLUSION Topologies are essence of computer networks design. Efficient networks can only be built based on the complete knowledge and understanding of above mentioned topologies. Knowledge of every communication device is of equal importance to help you find the best option for your network requirements. Optimum networks can be built with complete knowledge and understanding of computer network devices and how they are designed, any mistake in choosing inappropriate techniques, device etc can only be the waste of time, resources and efforts. APPENDIX Figure 1.1. OSI Reference Model Application Application Overlay Presentation Session Transport Data Transport Undercoat Network Data Link Physical Table 1.2 Separation of top layer and bottom layer of the OSI model Figure1 .3 Examples of how the OSI model used Figure: 2.1 Local Area Network Figure : 2.2 Metropolitan Area Network Figure : 2.3 Wide Area Network Figure : 3.1 Network Topology Figure :3.1.1 Star Network Topology Figure :3.1.2 Ring Network Topology Figure :3.1.3 Bus Network Topology Figure :3.1.4 Tree Network Topology

Auditory Localization Essay -- Hearing Sound Perception Essays

Auditory Localization Auditory localization is the ability to recognize the location from which a sound is emanating (Goldstine, 2002). There are many practical reasons for studying auditory localization. For example, previous research states that visual cues are necessary in locating a particular sound (Culling, 2000). However, blind people do not have the luxury of sight to help them locate a sound. Therefore, the ability to locate sound based only on auditory ability is important. It is also important to study different auditory processes. For example, when studying a way for a blind person to maneuver through an environment, it is helpful to know that people can most accurately locate sounds that happen directly in front of them; sounds that are far off, to the side, or behind the head are the least likely to be properly located (Goldstein, 2002). Three coordinate systems are utilized when attempting to locate a specific sound. The azimuth coordinate determines if a sound is located to the left or the right of a listener. The elevation coordinate differentiates between sounds that are up or down relative to the listener. Finally, the distance coordinate determines how far away a sound is from the receiver (Goldstine, 2002). Different aspects of the coordinate systems are also essential to sound localization. For example, when identifying the azimuth in a sound, three acoustic cues are used: spectral cues, interaural time differences (ITD), and interaural level differences (ILD) (Lorenzi, Gatehouse, & Lever, 1999). When dealing with sound localizaton, spectral cues are teh distribution of frequencies reaching teh ear. Brungart and Durlach (1999) (as seen in Shinn-Cunning, Santarelli, & Kopco, 1999) believed that as the ... ...Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 26 (6), 760-1769. Goldstein, E. (2002). Sensation and perception (Rev. ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Wadsworth-Thomsom Learning. Lorenzi, C., Gatehouse, S., & Lever, C. (1999). Sound localization in noise in hearing impaired listeners. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 105 (6), 3454-3463. Lorenzi, C., Gatehouse, S., & Lever, C. (1999). Sound localization in noise in normal hearing listeners. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 105 (3), 1810-1820. McDonald, J., Teder-Salejarvi, W, & Hillyard, S. (2000). Involuntary orienting to sound improves visual perception. Nature, 407, 906-907. Shinn-Cunningham, B., Santarelli, S., & Kopco, N. (1999). Tori of Confusion: Binaural localization cues for sources within reach of the listener. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 107 (3), 1627-1636.

Startres

At starting, when the motor is stationary, there is no back e. m. f. in the armature. Consequently, if the motor is directly switched on to the mains, the armature will draw a heavy current (la = WRa) because of small armature resistance. As an example, 5 H. P. , 220 V shunt motor has a full-load current of 20 A and an armature resistance of about 0. 5 0. If this motor is directly switched on to supply, it would take an armature current of 220/0. 5 = 440 A which is 22 times the full-load current.This high starting current may result in: (i) burning of armature due to excessive heating ffect, damaging the commutator and brushes due to heavy sparking, (iii) excessive voltage drop in the line to which the motor is connected. The result is that the operation of other appliances connected to the line may be impaired and in particular cases, they may refuse to work. In order to avoid excessive current at starting, a variable resistance (known as starting resistance) is inserted in series w ith the armature circuit.This resistance is gradually reduced as the motor gains speed (and hence Eb increases) and eventually it is cut out completely when the motor has ttained full speed. The value of starting resistance is generally such that starting current is limited to 1. 25 to 2 times the full-load current. 5. 8 Types of D. C. Motor Starters The stalling operation of a d. c. motor consists in the insertion of external resistance into the armature circuit to limit the starting current taken by the motor and the removal of this resistance in steps as the motor accelerates.When the motor attains the normal speed, this resistance is totally cut out of the armature circuit. It is very important and desirable to provide the starter with protective evices to enable the starter arm to return to OFF position (i) when the supply fails, thus preventing the armature being directly across the mains when this voltage is restored. For this purpose, we use no-volt release coil. (it) when t he motor becomes overloaded or develops a fault causing the motor to take an excessive current. For this purpose, we use overload release coil.There are two principal types of d. c. motor starters viz. , three-point starter and four- point starter. As we shall see, the two types of starters differ only in the manner in which the no-volt release coil is connected. 5. 9 Three-Point Starter This type of starter is widely used for starting shunt and compound motors. Schematic diagram Fig. (5. 16) shows the schematic diagram of a three-point starter for a shunt motor with protective devices. It is so called because it has three terminals L, Z and A.The starter consists of starting resistance divided into several sections and connected in out to a number of studs. The three terminals L, Z and A of the starter are connected respectively to the positive line terminal, shunt field terminal and armature terminal. The other terminals of the armature and shunt field windings are connected to th e negative terminal of the supply. The no-volt release coil is connected in the shunt field circuit. One end of the handle is connected to the terminal L through the over- load release coil.The other end of the handle moves against a spiral spring and makes contact with each stud during starting operation, cutting out more and more starting resistance as it passes over each stud in clockwise direction. Operation (i) To start with, the d. c. supply is switched on with handle in the OFF position. (ii) The handle is now moved clockwise to the first stud. As soon as it comes in contact with the first stud, the shunt field winding is directly connected across the supply, hile the whole starting resistance is inserted in series with the armature circuit. iii) As the handle is gradually moved over to the final stud, the starting resistance is cut out of the armature circuit in steps. The handle is now held magnetically by the no-volt release coil which is energized by shunt field current. (‘v) If the supply voltage is suddenly interrupted or if the field excitation is accidentally cut, the no-volt release coil is demagnetized and the handle goes back to the OFF position under the pull of the spring. If no-volt release coil were not used, hen in case of failure of supply, the handle would remain on the final stud.If then supply is restored, the motor will be directly connected across the supply, resulting in an excessive armature current. (v) If the motor is over-loaded (or a fault occurs), it will draw excessive current from the supply. This current will increase the ampere-turns of the over-load release coil and pull the armature C, thus short-circuiting the novolt release coil. The no-volt coil is demagnetized and the handle is pulled to the OFF position by the spring. Thus, the motor is automatically disconnected from the supply. Fig. (5. 17) DrawbackIn a three-point starter, the no-volt release coil is connected in series with the shunt field circuit so tha t it carries the shunt field current. While exercising speed control through field regulator, the field current may be weakened to such an extent that the no-volt release coil may not be able to keep the starter arm in the ON position. This may disconnect the motor from the supply when it is not desired. This drawback is overcome in the four point starter. 5. 10 Four-Point Starter In a four-point starter, the no-volt release coil is connected directly across the supply line through a protective resistance R. Fig. (5. ) shows the schematic diagram of a 4- point starter for a shunt motor (over-load release coil omitted for clarity of the figure). Now the no-volt release coil circuit is independent of the shunt field circuit. Therefore, proper speed control can be exercised without affecting the operation of novolt release coil. between a three-point starter and a four-point starter is the manner in which no-volt release coil is connected. However, the working of the two starters is th e same. It may be noted that the threepoint starter also provides protection against an openfield circuit. This protection is not provided by the four-point starte