Example Sentences of the Verb Hit

Here are examples of sentences using the verb to hit in all tenses including active and passive forms, as well as conditional and modal forms. Base Form hit / Past Simple hit  / Past Participle hit / Gerund hitting Present Simple:  He often hits balls with his son in the park.Present Simple Passive:  Home runs are often hit out of this ballpark.Present Continuous:  He is hitting the ball hard today.Present Continuous Passive:  The ball is being hit hard today by all the players.Present Perfect:  She has hit fifteen home runs this season.Present Perfect Passive:  Fifteen home runs have been hit by Susan this season.Present Perfect Continuous:  Jack has been hitting that punching bag for the last twenty minutes.Past Simple:  Mary hit a home run out of the park yesterday.Past Simple Passive:  A home run was hit out of the park during yesterdays game.Past Continuous:  Hank was hitting the punching bag when his trainer walked into the gym.Past Continuous Passive:  The punching bag was being hit when the trainer walked into the gym.Past Perfect:  She had already hit four home runs when she hit the grand slam!Past Perfect Passive:  A grand slam had already been hit when the g ame was canceled due to the rain.Past Perfect Continuous:  Alan had been hitting the punching bag for twenty minutes when the trainer walked into the gym.Future (will):  She will hit the roof when she finds out!Future (will) passive:  The ball will be hit out of the park.Future (going to):  Jack is going to hit the ball out of the park today.Future (going to) passive:  The ball is going to be hit out of the park today.Future Continuous:  This time tomorrow we will be hitting the punching bag in the gym.Future Perfect:  William will have hit three home runs before the game is finished.Future Possibility:  She might hit him if he doesnt shut up!Real Conditional:  If she hits a home run, the team will celebrate.Unreal Conditional:  If she hit a home run, the team would celebrate.Past Unreal Conditional:  If she had hit a home run, the team would have celebrated.Present Modal:  You should hit a punching bag to get rid of your anger.Past Modal:  She must have hi t a home run. Quiz: Conjugate With Hit Use the verb to hit to conjugate the following sentences. Quiz answers are below. In some cases, more than one answer may be correct. Mary _____ a home run out of the park yesterday.She _____ fifteen home runs this season.He _____ the ball hard today.The punching bag _____ when the trainer walked into the gym.A grand slam _____ already _____ when the game was canceled due to the rain.She _____ the roof when she finds out!William _____ three home runs before the game is finished.If she _____ a home run, the team would have celebrated.A homerun _____ out of the park during yesterdays game.He often _____ a punching bag to relax. Quiz Answers hithas hitis hittingwas being hithad been hitwill hitwill have hithad hitwas hithits

Educating A Better World - 1594 Words

Educate for a Better World Imagine being given the momentous challenge to make the world a better place. This is a near impossible challenge for an entire world of people, let alone one person. Now imagine having $75 billon to do it. I bet this challenge, given to us by Professor Bjà ¸rn Lamborg in his book How to Spend $75 Billion to Make the World a Better Place, is looking a bit more plausible Once given the tools to change the world, the next step is to figure out where and how to spend it. Deciding on only one project or program to fund in hopes that it will change the world would be unrealistic but through a process of research and thorough thinking, a list can be narrowed down to a smaller number of top choices. An example of this would be the United Nations’ (UN’s) Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The MDGs consists of eight different goals, that if completed would change the world tremendously, and in turn make the world a better place. Of these eight goals the one I found the most plausible to change the world, and continue changing it once completed, was the second goal: To achieve universal primary education by the year 2015. Although universal education was one of the many goals that was not completed by 2015, the UN decided to continue striving for its completion by 2030 with the help of the UN’s Sustainable Development goals (SDGs). The Millennium goals were developed by the UN’s Millennium Summit in 2000. According to AKIGHIR David Terfa and OKPE. I’sShow MoreRelatedEducating Afghan Girls Education929 Words   |  4 Pages Educating Afghan Girls’ Education is one of the most important contributors to having a successful future. In developed countries such as North America boys and girls are fortunate enough to have access to an unbiased education system. Therefore, allowing children to have countless opportunities. However, in countries like Afghanistan girls are marginalized and neglected the right to learn. 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Educating Rita is th e story of a young hairstylist with a desire for a different life. She seems doomed to live the life everyone expects her to; to get married, have children and, well, that’s pretty much it, but Rita has a craving for knowledge and self-advancement. Like her mother says as they sing in the pub, Rita believes, â€Å"There must be better songs to sing than this.† So she goes back to school with uncertainty,Read MoreOne Can Agree That The Education Of Children Is Vital.The1280 Words   |  6 Pagesevery day. The first article by World Bank called Education Plays Key Role in Advancing Women, Girls, and Communities allows the reader to view educating young girls in a factual way, referring to the development of the brains of these girls. 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Polaroid Case - 893 Words

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Environmental Sustainability Carbon Emissions - 1180 Words

Introduction The world is starting to see the effects that carbon emissions, with the largest producer being China with 24.65% of the world emissions. Although Australia isn t as large as China we still produce 1.11% of the world s emissions. Now people are starting to see the effects of the Carbon Emissions and pollution is doing to the Earth. Carbon Pollution What exactly is Carbon Emissions? Carbon Emissions also known as Carbon Pollution, which is pollution through the production of Co2 (Carbon Dioxide). With the increase production of carbon emissions from industrial activity and general car emissions is now start to harm the environment, which is resulting in environmental disasters from rising sea levels from the melting of the ice caps. Another type of pollution is air pollutant, is any air pollutant that is emitted into the air. Such pollutants can involve physical, chemical, biological, radioactive substances or matter. With the increasing level of air pollutants is causing warming of the globe and low level thick smog covering major city worldwide. Environmentally Sustainability Environmental sustainability is defined as rates of renewable resource harvest, pollution creation, and non-renewable resource depletion that can be continued indefinitely. If the resource is not able to continue indefinitely then the resource is not sustainable. Green initiatives This needs to change, governments, companies and even the general public are trying to do their partShow MoreRelatedNike : An Innovative Company Essay1092 Words   |  5 Pageswith the demand from customers. According to NIKE (2016), sustainability has changed the ambitions of the company to create more innovations with less impact on environment. They called this as â€Å"sustainable innovation†. With this ambition, NIKE intended to create a sustainable business that goes hand in hand with environment and society. 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Sample essays free essay sample

My females roots are intertwined with several ethnic and cultural backgrounds. My mothers parents are American, but her ancestors are originally from England and Germany. My fathers mother is Peruvian, but his father is Egyptian. I grew up in Peru with my parents in a quiet neighborhood of Lima. My paternal grandparents lived down the street from us, but my maternal grandparents lived in the United States. Unlike most on-native speakers, I did not learn English for school; I learned English so that I could speak to my grandparents. Coming from a multilingual family sparked many difficulties in communication. For example, when my maternal grandparents would fly from North America to South America to visit us, my mother had to translate among the different family members. We spoke Spanish in our house, but my American grandparents spoke only English. Since they did not speak a word of Spanish, my mother was constantly Interpreting questions and answers. Rather than enjoying their visit, my mother had to work as a renovator.With my moms help. I could understand my grandparents, but I wanted to speak to them by myself. Eventually, this situation reached its boiling point. One day my mother asked my grandmother to pick me up from school. My school was only a few blocks from our house, but my grandmother got horribly lost on the way. She ended up in the wrong neighborhood and had to get help from the police. It was quite embarrassing for a grown woman to find herself lost In a small neighborhood. Now we all realized that being monolingual was a huge handicap. In addition, it was potentially dangerous ability!Because of this incident, I decided to take action. The next time my grandparents came to visit, I taped vocabulary cards on all of the objects in our house. On the Sills, I hung a card with chair written on it. On the mesa, I attached a card that said table. I continued putting these English words all over the house. Meanwhile, my grandparents saw how hard I was working to learn English, and they decided that they wanted to learn Spanish. Later, we wrote the Spanish words on all of the cards as well so that we could practice together. My mom would help us with grammar whenever we had questions. It was so much fun to turn our monolingual Spanish house into a truly bilingual home. While I was studying English, I realized that learning a language does more than teach you new words; It enables you to learn about new people. Instead of needing my mother to tell me stories about my grandparents, we can now talk directly to each other. Now my grandparents and I talk on the phone every week without a translator, and our relationship is much closer than it ever was before. By learning a common language to communicate, you can experience a new relationship. Source: Keith S. Fools Tools Pugh (2007), Greater Essay. Canada: Houghton Muffling Example of Descriptive Essay ere Ring People all over the world spend valuable time and cash to see championship fights. Whether it is for boxing, wrestling, or ultimate fighting, crowds gather in bars and around televisions to support their favorite fighters. Many know what is like to be spectator, but few know the fighters experience. L, on the other hand, have first- hand knowledge of what is like to be in the ring. The first sound I hear is the familiar bell that brings me to reality. All around are y friends, family, and people who want to see women brawl.This is far from a quiet event. The onlookers are comparable to screeching howler monkeys with beers and snacks in their hands. My body feels heavy; I am covered in all the necessary places to prevent injury. The guard in my mouth causes excess fluid to run down my chin. ere ring smells like rubber and sweat from previous battles. These conditions are not ideal for the average woman, but for me boxing is my place in the world, my sanctuary, my one talent. I look over at my competition. She is shorter and thicker than I am, and her stance s impeccable. Immediately I realize that this will be a memorable occasion.I can tell everything about my opponent by her reaction to the first punch, whether she backs away or comes in closer. I always test the water with a three-punch combination: a lab, a strong right, and a left hook. With each strike I exhale, making the hits more effective. She moves in closer, mainly because of her height, partially because she is confident. This makes me hesitate, but I know I cannot let this stab of fear affect my performance. I prance around my tiptoes, and she follows me like a lost puppy. The first-two minute round consists of she and I doing the well-known first round dance. This is how we figure each other out.Not much damage is done on either end, a couple of single blows, and soon enough the bell rings signifying our thirty-second break. I stagger over to my corner of my ring. My coach gives me the usual pep talk as I spit while simultaneously wiping beads of sweat off my head, necks, and chests. He reminds me of a father, very proud of his little girl. Soon enough, before I am fully rejuvenated, it will be time to go back to the fight for the second round. I am so prepared. Whether I win or lose the fight, I know that I will fight my best and make my coach and myself proud. I will relish in every moment of my time in the boxing ring.There is no other place I would rather be. Source: Karri L. Russell (2012), Write Now. Americas, New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies. Example of Argumentative Essay Can Spam! When I first got an e-mail account ten years ago, I received communications only from friends, family, and professional acquaintances. Businesses did not contact me with advertisements to sell me their services. Now it seems that every time I check my e-mail, I have to delete an endless parade of advertisements and other correspondence that does not come from legitimate businesses and therefore does not interest me at all.If we want e-mail to continue to be useful, we need specific laws that criminality spam. The annoying avalanche of spam threatens to destroy this important means of modern communication. If the government does not do something soon to outlaw spam, the problem will certainly get much worse. Computer programs allow spammed to send hundreds of millions of e-mails virtually instantly. As more and more advertisers turn to spam to sell their products, the e-mail that we want to receive could be greatly outnumbered by Junk e-mail.Would you continue to use e-mail if you had to delete 100 pieces of spam for each e-mail that was written to you by someone you know? Although this problem with e-mailing is troubling for private individuals, it is even shut down the entire network of business. Companies rely on e-mail for their employees to communicate with each other. Spamming corrupts their internal communications, and a companys employees are thus unable to communicate effectively. Such a situation results in a loss of productivity for the company and sometimes requires the company to reformulate its communication network, too.These computer problems raise the companys costs, which must then be passed on to the consumer. Despite these problems for businesses, some people might argue that crystallizing spam would infringe on spammed right to free speech. However, how free is speech that drowns out other voices that we want to hear? Commercial speech that is designed to encourage people to spend money legally different form peoples right to voice their personal opinions. The right to free speech does not allow companies to flood my mailbox with their e-mail garbage.Yes, free speech is essential component of the exchange of ideas necessary for a flourishing democracy. Unsolicited e-mails, however, threaten to inhibit effective communication, not nurture Because of these important reasons, our lawmakers need to legislate against spam. Spammed should be fined, and perhaps Jailed, if they continue to disturb people with their incessant pleas for our attention and our money. E-mail was designed to be a helpful tool to allow people all over the world to communicate with ACH other quickly and effectively, but spam threatens to destroy this advance in human communication.Source: Keith S. Fools Tyson Pugh (2007), Greater Essay. Canada: Houghton Muffling Company Example of Compare and Contrast Essay ere Truth About Cats and Dogs I used to think that dogs were better than cats as pets. As I was growing up, my had cats because my father is allergic to them. I always assumed that when I grew up, I would have a dog as a pet. My life as a pet owner changed one night when a tiny kitten showed up at my door. He was cold, wet, and hungry, and I was afraid he Mould die on my doorstep if I did not help him.I never saw myself as a cat owner, but now I am one, I realize that most of the stereotypes about cats and dogs are untrue. Cats are supposed to be standoffish and incurious as well as finicky and meticulous. My cat, however, is very friendly and even a little messy. He always wants my attention, which can be annoying at times, especially when I am trying to cook or study. I thought that a cat would sleep all day, but my cat is much more energetic than I expected. If he does not go outside to frolic in the backyard, he starts to behave a bit neurotically. Obviously, my cat does not fit stereotype of the average cat.People also say that dogs are friendlier than cats, but I remembered a couple of my family dogs that were not friendly at all. Our Chihuahua was named Waster, and he did not like anyone. Every time someone rang our doorbell, he would bark ferociously to scare the visitor away. Once he even nipped at my grandmother! She never thought that all dogs were friendly after the experience. We also had another dog named Rover that used to bark loudly whenever the postal carrier came to deliver our mail. Even though our carrier never met our dog, I am certain that he knew Rover was not a friendly dog.Of course, I have known both cats and dogs that fulfill the stereotypes as well. My friend Mime had a cat that was so aloof and distant that I never saw it when I came to visit. No matter how many times I dropped by her house, the cat always hid itself under a bed. Likewise, my friend Jasper has a dog that is almost ridiculously friendly. It licks and licks and licks until I wish it were not quite friendly. How did these stereotypes about cats and dogs develop? As with most prejudices, hey reflect more about the people who express them than about what is true.Both cats and dogs make good pets, and both of them can make bad pets. It all depends on the individual animal, and no one should Judge an animal before getting to know Modern Music Technology : Downloading or Stealing? The recording industry is in a slump. Albums and CDC are not selling as much as they were several years ago, and this trend shows no sign of reversing. For the industry as a whole, profits are down ten percent within the last three years. What has caused this downward spiral for the music industry? The answer is the same piece of equipment with which I am writing this essay: the personal computer.There are three reasons that the computer has had a deleterious effect on the recording industry. Because of the popularity of sharing computer sound files, consumers no longer feel that they need to purchase music. Many people think it is morally acceptable-? not to mention convenient-?to download music files for free via file-sharing services. A couple of mouse-button clicks, and presto! Now you own on your own computer that catchy little tune that you have been humming. Then, it is Just a couple of more clicks until it is burned on a CD for you. With this level of convenience, it is easy to see why record companies are feeling the pinch. In addition, computers allow musicians to market and sell their own music. Musicians can record and create their own CDC at a relatively modest cost these days. Before the development of the personal computer, most musicians could not afford to record their own music, but now the costs are much more reasonable. For this reason, it makes less sense for musicians to give away a part of their profits to a cord company for activities that they can accomplish themselves.Furthermore, the recording industry bears some of the blame for its own problems simply because it has been recalcitrant about using personal computers to sell its products. It has long annoyed me that record companies primarily sell whole albums when only one of the songs is of interest to me. I do not like to waste my money on an entire album and then find out that the album has Just one good song on it. The recording industry should package and sell music in a way that consumers Ant and take advantage of personal computers to market songs to individual nonusers.If the downward trends in the recording industry continue, will there still be a recording industry? It is quite possible that the recording industry will die over time if it becomes no longer profitable to market and sell music. Performing artists might have to advertise themselves through smaller venues, and consumers might need to seek out new music if it is no longer marketed directly to them. The computer has brought about tremendous changes to the recording industry, and the industry will have to move quickly to retain its relevance in todays economy.

Computer Security And The Law Essay Example For Students

Computer Security And The Law Essay Computer Security And The LawI. IntroductionYou are a computer administrator for a large manufacturing company. Inthe middle of a production run, all the mainframes on a crucial network grind toa halt. Production is delayed costing your company millions of dollars. Uponinvestigating, you find that a virus was released into the network through aspecific account. When you confront the owner of the account, he claims heneither wrote nor released the virus, but he admits that he has distributed hispassword to friends who need ready access to his data files. Is he liable forthe loss suffered by your company? In whole or in part? And if in part, for howmuch? These and related questions are the subject of computer law. The answersmay very depending in which state the crime was committed and the judge whopresides at the trial. Computer security law is new field, and the legalestablishment has yet to reach broad agreement on may key issues. Advances in computer security law have been impeded by the reluctance onthe part of lawyers and judges to grapple with the technical side of computersecurity issues1. This problem could be mitigated by involving technicalcomputer security professional in the development of computer security law andpublic policy. This paper is meant to help bridge to gap between technical andlegal computer security communities. II. THE TECHNOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVEA. The Objectives of Computer SecurityThe principal objective of computer security is to protect and assurethe confidentiality, integrity, and availability of automated informationsystems and the data they contain. Each of these terms has a precise meaningwhich is grounded in basic technical ideas about the flow of information inautomated information systems. B. Basic ConceptsThere is a broad, top-level consensus regarding the meaning of mosttechnical computer security concepts. This is partly because of governmentinvolvement in proposing, coordinating, and publishing the definitions of basicterms2. The meanings of the terms used in government directives andregulations are generally made to be consistent with past usage. This is not tosay that there is no disagreement over the definitions in the technicalcommunity. Rather, the range of such disagreement is much narrower than in thelegal community. For example there is presently no legal consensus on exactlywhat constitutes a computer3. The term used to establish the scope of computer security is automatedinformation system, often abbreviated AIS. An Ais is an assembly ofelectronic equipment, hardware, software, and firmware configured to collect,create, communicate, disseminate, process, store and control data or information. This includes numerous items beyond the central processing unit and associatedrandom access memory, such as input/output devises (keyboards, printers, etc.)Every AIS is used by subjects to act on objects. A subject is anyactive entity that causes information to flow among passive entities calledobjects. For example, subject could be a person typing commands which transferinformation from a keyboard (an object) to memory (another object),or a process running on the central processing unit that is sending informationfrom a file(an object) to a printer a printer(another object).2Confidentiality is roughly equivalent to privacy.If a subjectcircumvents confidentiality measures designed to prevent its access to anobject, the object is said to be comprised. Confidentiality is the mostadvanced area of computer security because the U.S. Department of Defense hasinvested heavily for many years to find way to maintain the confidentiality ofclassified data in AIS 4. This investment has produced the Department ofDefense trusted computer system evaluation criteria5, alternatively calledthe Orange Book after the color of its cover. The orange book is perhaps thesingle most authoritative document about protecting the confidentiality of datain classified AIS. Integrity measures are meant to protect data form unauthorizedmodification. The integrity of an object can be assessed by comparing itscurrent state to its original or intended state. An object which has beenmodified by a subject with out proper authorization is sad to corrupted.Technology for ensuring integrity has lagged behind that for confidentiality4. This is because the integrity problem has until recently been addressed byrestricting access to AIS to trustworthy subjects. Today, the integrity threatis no longer tractable exclusively through access control. The desire for wideconnectivity through networks and the increased us of commercial off the shelfsoftware has limited the degree to which most AISs can trust acceleratingover the past few years, and will likely become as important a priority asconfidentiality in the future. Availability means having an AIS system and its associated objectsaccessible and functional when needed by its user community. Attacks againstavailability are called denial of service attacks. For example, a subject mayrelease a virus which absorbs so much processor time that the AIS system becomesoverloaded. This is by far the least well developed of the three securityproperties, largely for technical reasons involving the formal verification ofAIS designs4. Although such verification is not likely to become a practicalreality for many years, techniques such as fault tolerance and softwarereliability are used to migrate the effects of denial service attacks. C. Computer Security RequirementsThe three security properties of confidentiality, integrity, andavailability are acvhied by labeling the subjects and objects in an AIS andregulating the flow of information between them according to a predetermined setof rules called a security policy. The security policy specifies which subjectlabels can access which object labels. For example, suppose you went shoppingand had to present your drives license to pick up some badges assigned to you atthe entrance, each listing a brand name. The policy at some stores is that youcan only buy the brand name listed on one of your badges. At the check-out lane,the cashier compares the brand names of each object you want to buy with nameson your badges. If theres a match, she rings it up. But if you choose abrand name that doesnt appear on one of your badges she puts it back on theshelf.You could be sneaky and alter a badge, or pretend to be your neighborwho has more badges than you, or find a clerk who will turn a blind eye. Nodoubt the store would employ a host of measures to prevent you from cheating. The same situation exists on secure computer systems. Security measure areemployed to prevent illicit tampering with labels, positively identify subjects,and provide assurance that the security measures are doing the job correctly. A comprehensive list of minimal requirements to secure an AIS are presented inThe Orange Book5. IIIThe Legal PerspectiveA. Sources Of Computer LawThe three branches of the government, legislative, executive, and judicial,produce quantities of computer law which are inversely proportional to theamount of coordination needed for its enactment. The legislative branch,consisting of the Congress and fifty state legislators, produce the smallestamount if law which is worded in the most general terms. For example, theCongress may pass a bill mandating that sensitive information in governmentcomputers be protected. The executive branch, consisting of the president andnumerous agencies, issues regulations which implement the bills passed bylegislators. Finally, the judicial branch serves as an avenue of appeal anddecides the meaning of the laws and regulations in specific cases. After thedecisions are issued, and in some cases appealed, they are taken as the word ofthe law in legally similar situations. B. Current Views On Computer CrimeCurrently there is no universal argument in the legal community on whatconstitutes a computer crime. One reason is the rapidly changing state ofcomputer technology. For example in 1979, the U.S. Department of justicepublication6 partitioned computer crime into three categories: 1) Computerabuse, the broad range of international acts involving a computer where one ormore perpetrators made or could have made gain and one or victims suffered orcould have suffered a loss. Computer crime, Illegal computer abuse theimplies direct involvement of computers in committing a crime. 3) Computerrelated crimes Any illegal act for which a knowledge of computer technology isessential for successful prosecution. These definitions have become blurred bythe vast proliferation of computers and computer related products over the lastdecade. For example, does altering an inventory bar code at a store constitutecomputer abuse? Should a person caught in such an act be prose cuted both undertheft and computer abuse laws? Clearly, advances in computer technology shouldbe mirrored by parallel changes in computer laws. Another attempt to describe the essential features of computer crimes has beenmade by wolk and Luddy1. They claim that the majority of crimes committedagainst or which the use of a computer can be classified. These crimes areclassified as follows: 1) sabotage, involves an attack against the entirecomputer system, or against its sub components, and may be the product offoreign involvement or penetration by a competitor. 2) Theft of services,using a computer at someone elses expense. 3) Property crime involving thetheft of property by and through the use of a computer. A good definition ofcomputer crime should capture all acts which are criminal and involve computersand only those acts. Assessing the completeness of a definition seemsproblematic, tractable using technical computer security concepts. Mulholland Drive: Camera and sound EssayB. Current Views On Computer CrimeCurrently there is no universal argument in the legal community on whatconstitutes a computer crime. One reason is the rapidly changing state ofcomputer technology. For example in 1979, the U.S. Department of justicepublication6 partitioned computer crime into three categories: 1) Computerabuse, the broad range of international acts involving a computer where one ormore perpetrators made or could have made gain and one or victims suffered orcould have suffered a loss. Computer crime, Illegal computer abuse theimplies direct involvement of computers in committing a crime. 3) Computerrelated crimes Any illegal act for which a knowledge of computer technology isessential for successful prosecution. These definitions have become blurred bythe vast proliferation of computers and computer related products over the lastdecade. For example, does altering an inventory bar code at a store constitutecomputer abuse? Shou ld a person caught in such an act be prosecuted both undertheft and computer abuse laws? Clearly, advances in computer technology shouldbe mirrored by parallel changes in computer laws. Another attempt to describe the essential features of computer crimes has beenmade by wolk and Luddy1. They claim that the majority of crimes committedagainst or which the use of a computer can be classified. These crimes areclassified as follows: 1) sabotage, involves an attack against the entirecomputer system, or against its sub components, and may be the product offoreign involvement or penetration by a competitor. 2) Theft of services,using a computer at someone elses expense. 3) Property crime involving thetheft of property by and through the use of a computer. A good definition ofcomputer crime should capture all acts which are criminal and involve computersand only those acts. Assessing the completeness of a definition seemsproblematic, tractable using technical computer security concepts. IV. ConclusionThe development of effective computer security law and public policycannot be accomplished without cooperation between the technical and legalcommunities. The inherently abstruse nature of computer technology and theimportance of social issues it generates demands the combined talents of both. At stake is not only a fair and just interpretation of the law as it pertains tocomputers, but more basic issues involving the protection of civil rights. Technological developments have challenged these rights in the past and havebeen met with laws and public policies which have regulated their use. Forexample the use of the telegraph and telephone gave rise to privacy lawspertaining to wire communications. We need to meet advances in automatedinformation technology with legislation that preserves civil liberties andestablishes legal boundaries for protecting confidentiality, integrity, andassured service. Legal and computer professionals have a vital role in meetingthis challenge together. REFERENCES1Stuart R. Wolk and William J. Luddy Jr., Legal Aspects of Computer Use Prentice Hall, 1986,pg. 129 2National Computer Security Center,Glossary of Computer Security Terms October 21,1988 3Thomas R. MylottIII, Computer Law for the Computer Professional, Prentice Hall, 1984,p.g. 131.e 4Gasser, Morrie, Building a Secure Computer System VanNostrand, 1988. 5Department of Defense, Department of Defense TrustedComputer System Evaluation Criteria, December 1985 6United StatesDepartment of Justice, Computer Crime, Criminal Justice Resource Manual, 1979COMPUTER SECURITY AND THE LAWI. IntroductionYou are a computer administrator for a large manufacturing company. Inthe middle of a production run, all the mainframes on a crucial network grind toa halt. Production is delayed costing your company millions of dollars. Uponinvestigating, you find that a virus was released into the network through aspecific account. When you confront the owner of the account, he claims heneither wrote nor released the virus, but he admits that he has distributed hispassword to friends who need ready access to his data files. Is he liable forthe loss suffered by your company? In whole or in part? And if in part, for howmuch? These and related questions are the subject of computer law. The a nswersmay very depending in which state the crime was committed and the judge whopresides at the trial. Computer security law is new field, and the legalestablishment has yet to reach broad agreement on may key issues. Advances in computer security law have been impeded by the reluctance onthe part of lawyers and judges to grapple with the technical side of computersecurity issues1. This problem could be mitigated by involving technicalcomputer security professional in the development of computer security law andpublic policy. This paper is meant to help bridge to gap between technical andlegal computer security communities. II. THE TECHNOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVEA. The Objectives of Computer SecurityThe principal objective of computer security is to protect and assurethe confidentiality, integrity, and availability of automated informationsystems and the data they contain. Each of these terms has a precise meaningwhich is grounded in basic technical ideas about the flow of information inautomated information systems. B. Basic ConceptsThere is a broad, top-level consensus regarding the meaning of mosttechnical computer security concepts. This is partly because of governmentinvolvement in proposing, coordinating, and publishing the definitions of basicterms2. The meanings of the terms used in government directives andregulations are generally made to be consistent with past usage. This is not tosay that there is no disagreement over the definitions in the technicalcommunity. Rather, the range of such disagreement is much narrower than in thelegal community. For example there is presently no legal consensus on exactlywhat constitutes a computer3. The term used to establish the scope of computer security is automatedinformation system, often abbreviated AIS. An Ais is an assembly ofelectronic equipment, hardware, software, and firmware configured to collect,create, communicate, disseminate, process, store and control data or information. This includes numerous items beyond the central processing unit and associatedrandom access memory, such as input/output devises (keyboards, printers, etc.)Every AIS is used by subjects to act on objects. A subject is anyactive entity that causes information to flow among passive entities calledobjects. For example, subject could be a person typing commands which transferinformation from a keyboard(an object) to memory (another object),or a process running on the central processing unit that is sending informationfrom a file(an object) to a printer a printer(another object).2Confidentiality is roughly equivalent to privacy.If a subjectcircumvents confidentiality measures designed to prevent its access to anobject, the object is said to be comprised. Confidentiality is the mostadvanced area of computer security because the U.S. Department of Defense hasinvested heavily for many years to find way to maintain the confidentiality ofclassified data in AIS 4. This investment has produced t he Department ofDefense trusted computer system evaluation criteria5, alternatively calledthe Orange Book after the color of its cover. The orange book is perhaps thesingle most authoritative document about protecting the confidentiality of datain classified AIS. Integrity measures are meant to protect data form unauthorizedmodification. The integrity of an object can be assessed by comparing itscurrent state to its original or intended state. An object which has beenmodified by a subject with out proper authorization is sad to corrupted.Technology for ensuring integrity has lagged behind that for confidentiality4. This is because the integrity problem has until recently been addressed byrestricting access to AIS to trustworthy subjects. Today, the integrity threatis no longer tractable exclusively through access control. The desire for wideconnectivity through networks and the increased us of commercial off the shelfsoftware has limited the degree to which most AISs can trust acceleratingover the past few years, and will likely become as important a priority asconfidentiality in the future. Availability means having an AIS system and its associated objectsaccessible and functional when needed by its user community. Attacks againstavailability are called denial of service attacks. For example, a subject mayrelease a virus which absorbs so much processor time that the AIS system becomesoverloaded. This is by far the least well developed of the three securityproperties, largely for technical reasons involving the formal verification ofAIS designs4. Although such verification is not likely to become a practicalreality for many years, techniques such as fault tolerance and softwarereliability are used to migrate the effects of denial service attacks. C. Computer Security RequirementsThe three security properties of confidentiality, integrity, andavailability are acvhied by labeling the subjects and objects in an AIS andregulating the flow of information between them according to a predetermined setof rules called a security policy. The security policy specifies which subjectla