Evaluation of the Sculpture Virgin and Child free essay sample

Virgin and Child Scuplture After several visits to the information desk and walking through about two dozen different galleries, I finally found the sculpture of Virgin and Child. She stands on a pedestal totaling approximately 6 feet tall, but the sculpture alone is only about half the height. There is a placard on the pedestal citing historical information. The sculpture is French Gothic and is made from marble. She was sculpted somewhere between the years 1325 and 1350. It is also noted that the sculpture is part of the Samuel H Kress Collection, I assume this means he is either the sculptor or owner of the piece. We can assume from the title that this sculpture is a representation of The Virgin Mary and baby Jesus. Starting from her head, she is wearing a crown that at one time had five points, but now only has four as the back is broken. Each point is designed to look somewhat like a leave and was probably imagined to be made of gold. We will write a custom essay sample on Evaluation of the Sculpture Virgin and Child or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Under her crown she is also wearing a headdress, like a hood almost, which is indistinguishable from her robe-like dress. In her right hand she is holding something which is now broken. The object in her hand does not extend any lower than her hand and is only about one inch in length above her hand. There is a hole in the top of the piece in her hand, as if something once fit down into it and is now broken. On her left she is holding a baby, which as we assumed above is baby Jesus. Both of the baby’s arms are missing, his left disconnected at the shoulder and his right disconnected right above the elbow. There is a crevice in the baby’s left leg, which allows us to assume that he was once holding something in his right arm that crossed his body and rested in his lap. He is wrapped from his waist down is a cloth robe, but his right toes are exposed when facing the sculpture. If you stand to the right of it, you can see the bottom of his toes on his left foot. Her feet are also exposed, but she looks to be wearing some kind of shoe or slipper because her feet are smooth. There are holes on her robe, her crown, and her neck. The ones on her robe and crown were all about a centimeter or a centimeter and a half in diameter, and about a quarter to a half a centimeter deep. They varied in shape, some were round and some where square or diamond shaped. The holes were about two to three inches apart on both her robe and her crown. One could assume these holes once housed some sort of precious stone. There were three holes on her neck. The one in the center was very shallow, possibly only a few milliliters, but about an inch to an inch and a half in diameter. On each side, with about an inch between each, were two more of the smaller deeper holes. The detail in this sculpture was immaculate. There was detail in almost every strand of hair on both her and the baby’s heads. The baby’s feet had distinct toes which even included toe nails. As the baby’s feet did, her hands portrayed detail even to include her fingernails. They both had complete detail in their faces, with proportional eyes, noses, and lips. They were also proportional in relation to each other. The rest of the body proportions for her were also seemingly correct in the fact that she did not have oversized breasts, or stomach. As I was on my quest to find this sculpture in this museum I had encountered several paintings and sculptures similar to this one, mostly titled â€Å"Madonna and Child†. However this one stood apart. Something about this particular sculpture was extremely beautiful. And therefore it stood alone in a gallery set apart from the others, hopefully meant to exemplify its individual beauty.

Torts; CyberTorts; Strict Liability; Products Liability; Consumer

Torts; CyberTorts; Strict Liability; Products Liability; Consumer Torts; CyberTorts; Strict Liability; Products Liability; Consumer Protection – Essay Example TORTS Cyber Torts, Strict Liability, Products Liability, Consumer Protection Introduction The business world is governed largely by 2 types of law, contract law and tort law. Contract law pertains to the specific terms and conditions involved in the supply of a particular product or service. On the other hand, tort law governs all business practices (Cornell 2011) It is based on unwritten common law, although it can be reinforced by statutes passed by the legislature. Aside from these statutes, court decisions are based on precedent, that is, previous cases involving similar facts. Torts are wrongs committed against individuals and groups and can be intentional or unintentional. Intentional torts are wrongs done deliberately and therefore criminal and dealt with by criminal law and are uninsurable. On the other hand, unintentional torts are those committed inadvertently often due to negligence or carelessness and are therefore usually insurable. Examples of torts are cyber, strict li ability, and product liability, for which consumer protection is required. Cyber Torts Cyber Torts are simply wrongs committed over the internet which cause some kind of harm to the internet user. (Talbot 2010) Examples include identity theft, illegal piracy of electronic property, arranging meetings for criminal transactions, false impersonation to obtain information and sending out vast amounts of e-mails containing harmful data or spam. As it is often difficult to determine who is responsible protective software is being developed. The most common cyber tort is identity theft followed by home shopping catalog sales. Other examples are trespass to chattels, conversion, cyber stalking/harassment and defamation. An example of the latter is a case where a female teenager befriended a male counterpart on My Space who made nasty comments about her resulting in her suicide. In defamation the negative comments must be false as truth is an absolute defense. They must involve the unprivile ged publication of a statement to third parties (internet users) by at least the negligent acts of the publisher and cause perceivable damage to a perspective plaintiff. They are considered especially dangerous because of the global reach of the internet and the potential for source anonymity. Conversion is the unlawful application of the personal goods of another by the taker or a third party other than the owner and/or destroying or altering its’ nature. The required elements for a lawsuit are ownership or right of possession by the plaintiff, the defendants’ conversion by a wrongful act and causing harm to the plaintiff. Similarly, trespass to chattels requires meddling with a chattel in possession of another resulting in a) dispossession of the chattel, b) deprivation of the use of the chattel, c) impairment of the condition of the chattel and d) harm to the legal possessor of the chattel. Strict Liability Strict liability differs from ordinary liability in that a plaintiff does not have to prove the defendants’ negligence caused them harm, only that they sustained damage or injury resulting from an appropriate use of the defendants’ product or service.(Cornell 2011) For example, an employer may be held liable for the torts of an employee, unless the employer can demonstrate that the employee performed contrary to the employers’ instructions. In a products liability case where strict liability has been imposed by legislation because the product is inherently dangerous, purchasers of the product and injured others only have to prove the item was defective, that the defect caused the injury and the defect rendered the product inherently dangerous, even if the defendant exercised utmost care and was not negligent. The only defenses in such cases would be if the defendant could prove the plaintiff misused and/or tampered with the product causing it to become dangerous. In cases of harm caused by animals, strict liability is n ot usually imposed on owners unless by legislation or it can be shown the owner knew of the animals’ propensity to cause harm or it is considered a wild animal or did not take appropriate steps to restrain them. Another situation that could attract liability is the operation of an explosives factory in an urban area. Products Liability Products liability law is derived mainly from tort law although it can be codified by statute. (Cornell 2011)For example, regardless of any warranties supplied by the manufacturer products must be reasonably fit for the purpose intended and free from defects which could cause harm to the consumer and others. Assuming defects are caused by unintentional torts, they are generally insurable. Strict liability is usually applicable because it is often difficult for a consumer to determine whether the cause of the loss is a design, manufacturing or marketing defect, that is failure provide the consumer with accurate and complete instructions. Therefo re all parties involved in the manufacture and sale of the product are jointly and severally responsible for damage and injury caused although insurance companies under a liability policy are required to pay only for resulting damage and injuries, not replacing the defective product itself. While strict liability may apply, there are defenses available. For example, if it can be shown that the consumer caused the damage themselves by dropping,, abusing or otherwise misusing the product, all defendants could escape liability, If a retailer can show that the product was received and sold in a sealed container they avoid liability. Generally, if any party can show that it would have been impossible for them to have contributed to the loss in any way, they can escape liability but the onus is on them to prove that. Consumer Protection The US Federal Trade Commission publishes various articles to educate the public on how to avoid scams or rip offs in different types of purchases and how to optimally exercise their rights.(Federal Trade Com.2009)Various jurisdictions have government consumer protection departments and organizations such as the Better Business Bureau and trade associations for the product involved can investigate on behalf of the consumer and assist in resolving legitimate complaints without litigation. Conclusion Aside from contractual obligations, tort law imposes requirements on the design, manufacturer and distributor of products. It is up to consumers to educate themselves on their rights if they feel they have been victims of tort infractions and to seek appropriate assistance when necessary. References1) Talbot, Jonathon Tyler† Cyber Crimes† Penn State April 19, 2010 retrieved from https://webspaces.psu.edu (1ST432_SP10_TEAM4_CyberCrimesand Torts.2) â€Å"Products Liability Law† Legal Information Institute Cornell University Law School Aug. 19. 2011 retrieved from law.cornell.edu.3) â€Å"Strict Liability† Legal Inf ormation Institute Cornell University Law School Aug. 19. 2011 et al.4) â€Å"Tort Law an Overview† Legal Information Institute Cornell University Law School Aug. 19, 2011 et al.5) â€Å"Protecting America’s Consumers Federal Trade Commission Feb. 18, 2009† retrieved from www.ftc.gov/bcp/consumers.htm.

Law for Accounting assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Law for Accounting assignment - Essay Example Formation of Contract is based on firstly, an ‘offer’, which must be followed by an acceptance. Secondly, there must be consideration, intention to create legal relations and sufficient certainty. The main starting point for the conclusion of a contract can be found in Smith v Hughes1, where both a subjective as well as objective test was laid down in order to determine the existence of a contract. The subjective test determines the actual intention of the contracting parties, whereas the objective test ascertains what had been said by the parties, what they did and not and what their actual intention of saying or doing was. As per Professor Atiyah, the issue of offer and acceptance has been determined by courts in two ways, that is ‘reason forwards’ and ‘reason backwards’, the former is where existence of offer and acceptance are determined first and then the conclusion on the dispute is made; the latter is where the courts can reason from the appropriate solution back to the legal concepts of offer and acceptance. An offer has been defined as an expression of willingness by one party known as the offeror, to contract or be bound on stated terms, provided that such terms are accepted by the party to whom the offer is made that is the offeree. The courts have drawn a distinction between an offer and an invitation to treat, as the latter is merely an expression of willingness by one party to enter into negotiations and is not unconditional and there is a lack of intention to create legal relations. The most important and land mark cases which distinguished between an offer and invitation to treat are of Gibson v Manchester City Council2 and Storer v Manchester City Council3. In Gibson, where treasurer had sent a letter to Mr. Gibson, stating that council may be prepared to sell the house, was held to be an invitation to treat, which was further confirmed by the fact that Mr. Gibson was asked to make a formal application to purchase the house. The courts therefore took into account the correspondence between the parties. However, in Storer the courts found that a contract had come into existence as negotiations had moved beyond what had happened in Gibson but an exchange of contracts had not taken place. These cases clearly point out that fact that judges can interpret and differ in the results and so the decision would be said to be based on its own facts. An offer should be differentiated from a mere statement of price that is an enquiry as to the price. (Harvey v. Facey)4 Invitation to treat has been defined as an expression of willingness of a party to enter into negotiations with another with the hope that a contract would be reached at the end of such negotiations. (Fisher v Bell)5. As for advertisements, it has been strictly said to be an invitation to treat (Partridge v Crittenden)6, however, the courts have interpreted advertisements in a manner which allows for certain exceptions to be create d and the main reasons for that has been cited to be intention to be bound and certainty (Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co.)7. Further, the advertisement of an auction sale is generally only an invitation to treat (Harris v Nickerson)8. The opinions as to when an offer is made have differed. In respect of the advertisement that had been placed by Serena in the Sunday Times Style, the first and foremost question is whether such advertisement was an invitation to

Discovering the American Past in World War 1 Essay

Discovering the American Past in World War 1 - Essay Example During World War 1, Great Britain and the Germans had navigational barriers. Blockades used by Great Britain were designed to cut central powers off from the war while Americans commercial vessels bonded by the Germans were stopped (Wheeler, Becker and Glover 133). Besides, detention and searching of German ships by the British navy was quite often. The Confinement of German vessels was to stop them from participating in the war and make them a vulnerable target. However, the president of the United States by then, Wilson, protested detention of Germans vessels by the British policy many times but gained no positive results. British navy thought, giving in to the presidents’ demand, would have deprived them their principal military asset as the British army. The presence of the Germans during the war highly gained recognition and feared by the Americans. They perceived the Germans as strong and well-equipped people who would have changed everything and won the war against them . In addition, the Germans blockade was more dangerous since majority of American trade was with France and England. Therefore, the Americans did not trade with Germans, and this could have accelerated their war against the Americans. During the war, different emotions developed within the participating parties of the war. The emotions had to be controlled by the development of propaganda to enable unity of multiethnic and pluralistic society that was behind the war. Moreover, publicity attracted the sufficient number of men in the army services to elicit universal civilian support for the men. Additionally, propaganda assisted in influencing civilians to help was efforts by purchasing war bonds and other actions (Wheeler, Becker and Glover 136). Wheeler, Becker and Glover argue that, in achieving the control of emotions during the war, it entailed propaganda techniques advancement alongside extreme care (138). The propaganda had to attain two features in enabling emotion control and calmness.   First, it was to ensure the portrayal of Allied and American service members as the best and, second, the representation of enemy in the worst possible manner.  

Technology and Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Technology and Business - Essay Example In a way, Blackberry is the next generation in portable access that began with the introduction of mini computers and then laptops and now to handheld devices. It is an improvement over the PDA (Personal Digital Assistant). The Blackberry has its own operating system that has been developed by RIM (Research in Motion), the company that has pioneered the device. There is provision for third party vendors to provide add-on software. Currently, Blackberry allows for integration with the Microsoft Exchange, Novell and Lotus software. Blackberry can be thought of as a mix of the WAP access in mobile phones and the portability of a PDA. The latest versions of Blackberry have the GPS (Geographical Position Service) enabled along with the radio feature. This is a marked improvement over the earlier versions and it shows the extent to which the device has evolved over the years. The Blackberry device is portable and allows for flexibility and â€Å"on the move† access of the applications for professionals in any field. It is the technology of choice for senior management and those who have multiple meetings in a day. As mentioned in the previous section, it is a boon for anyone who spends a lot of time away from his or her desk and yet needs to access the emails and know the schedule for the day. Many companies have taken to the Blackberry devices in a major way and it is not uncommon to see executives sporting these devices. The later versions of the device have text messaging and group chat enabled along with the internet fax and other features that enable the users to access the network simultaneously. More and more companies are going in for versions of the device with lots of gigabytes of memory and storage space so as to enable the users to have applications like Microsoft Word integrated and make the users access them â€Å"on demand†. This integration makes the transition from desktop applications to the handheld devices and

The Seven Layer Osi Model

The Seven Layer Osi Model Seven-layer OSI model is a logical layer and developed by the ISO international standardization organization. The purpose of this layer is to understand the transmission of data flows from source to destination and to identify problems during data transmission. The seven layers include Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data link and Physical layer. The sequence of layer names to be remembered by this phrase All people seem to need data processing. The following is a general description of each layer. OSI reference model is now being considered as the main model for the internetworking and inter computing. The seven layers divide the task of data transmission in sub tasks and then complete the data transmission cycle. QUESTION 1 In the 1980s, the European-dominated International Standards Organization (ISO) began to develop its Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) networking suite. OSI has two major components: an abstract model of networking (the Basic Reference Model, or seven-layer model), and a set of concrete protocols. Briefly explain each of the seven OSI layer included their function and usage in data communication and networking. OSI Reference Model OSI reference model (Open Systems Interconnection) illustrates how information from a software application on a computer moves through a network medium to a software application on another computer. OSI reference model is conceptually divided into 7 layers where each layer has a specific network function, as described by figure 1.1 (with no physical media). This model was created based on a proposal made by the International Standards Organization (ISO) as a first step toward international standardization of protocols used at various layers. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½This model is called ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because this model is intended for sharing open systemà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½.[1] Open Systems can be interpreted as an open system to communicate with other systems. For his brief, we will call this model as the OSI model only. Figure 1.1. OSI Reference Model OSI model has seven layers. The principles used for the seven layers are: 1. A layer must be made when needed different levels of abstraction. 2. Each layer shall have certain functions. 3. The function of each layer should be chosen carefully in accordance with the provisions of international protocol standards. 4. Layer boundaries labored to minimize the flow of information through the interface. 5. The number of layers must be quite a lot, so that different functions do not need to be united in a single layer outside needs. However, the number of layers must also be cultivated as little as possible so that the network architecture does not become difficult to use. Below discuss about each layer of the OSI model sequentially, starting from the bottom layer. It should be noted that the OSI model itself is not network architecture, because this model does not explain the exact services and protocols to be used on any layer. OSI model only explains about what should be done by a layer. However, ISO has also established standards for all layers, although these standards do not constitute a reference model itself. Each layer has been declared as a separate international standard. Characteristics of the OSI Layers To seven layers of OSI reference model can be divided into two categories, namely upper and lower layers. The top layer of the OSI model deals with application issues and generally implemented only in software. The highest layer (application layer) is the cover prior to the user (users), both users and application layer processes interact with software applications that contain a communication component. The term upper layer is sometimes used to refer to some of the top layer of another coating layer in the OSI model. The bottom layer of the OSI model to control data transport issues. Physical layer and data link layer implemented in hardware and software. The layers below the others are generally only implemented in software. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½The lowest layer, the physical layer is a layer of cover for the physical network medium (cable networks), and as responsible for the placement of information on the network mediaà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½.[2] The following table shows the separation of the two l ayers in the layers of the OSI model. Application Application Overlay Presentation Session Transport Data Transport Undercoat Network Data Link Physical Table 1.2 Separation of top layer and bottom layer of the OSI model Protocol OSI model provides a conceptual framework for communication between computers, but this model is not a method of communication. In fact communication can occur due to use of communication protocols. In the context of data networks, a protocol is a formal rules and agreements that determine how computers exchange information over a network medium. A protocol implements one or more of the layers of the OSI. A wide variation of the communication protocol, but all maintains the flow in one group: the LAN protocols, WAN protocols, network protocols, and routing protocols. LAN protocols operate at the physical and data link layer of the OSI model and define communication over various LAN media. WAN protocols operate at the third lowest layer of the OSI model and define communication over various WAN. Routing protocol is a network layer protocol that is responsible for determining the road and traffic arrangements. Finally, the network protocol is different from the upper layer protocols th at exist in a series of protocols. Layers of the OSI Model Physical Layer Physical Layer functions in the delivery of raw bits into the channel of communication. Design issues that must be considered here is to ensure that when one side sends data 1 bit, the data must be accepted by the other side as a bit too, and not 0 bit. The question that arises in this case is: how many volts should be used to declare a value of 1? And how many volts is also required for the number 0?. It takes a bit how microsecond will be exhausted? Is the transmission can be processed simultaneously in both directions? How many pins are owned by the network and what is the use of each pin? In general, design problems are found here related to the mechanical, electrical and procedural interfaces, and physical media which is under the physical layer. Data Link Layer The main task of the data link layer is as raw data transmission facility and transforms the data to a channel that is free from transmission errors. Before forwarded who work layer, data link layer perform this task by allowing the sender meme cage breaking input data into a number of data frames (usually numbering in the hundreds or thousands of bytes). Then the data link layer transmits these frames in sequence, and process the acknowledgment frames sent back by the recipient. Because the physical layer send and receive bit stream without regard to the meaning or architectural frame, then depending on the data link layer was to create and recognize frame boundaries it. This can be done by affixing a special bit to the beginning and end of the frame. If incidental bit patterns can be found in the data, it is necessary to pay special attention to ensure that the pattern is not incorrectly considered as the boundaries of the frame. The occurrence of noise in the channel can damage the frame. In this case, the data link layer software on the source machine to send back the broken frame. However, transmission of the same frame over and over again can cause duplication of frames. Duplicate frames need to be sent if an acknowledgment frame from the receiver who returned to the sender has been lost. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½Depending on the layer is to overcome the problems that caused the destruction, loss and duplication of frames. The data link layer provides some service classes for the network layer. This service class can be distinguished in terms of quality and priceà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½.[4] Other problems that arise in the data link layer (and also most of the layers above it) are seeking the smooth process of data transmission from the sender to the recipient a slow speed. Mechanism of regulation of traffic data should allow the sender to know the amount of buffer space owned by the recipient at a certain moment. Often setting flow and error handling is done in an integrated manner. Channel that can send data in both directions also can be problematic. So therefore need to be considered for the data link layer software. Problems that can arise here is that the frames acknowledgement flowing from A to B compete with each other ahead of the flow from B to A. Settlement of the best (piggy backing) could have been used, then we shall discuss it in depth. Broadcast networks have an additional problem in the data link layer. The problem is in terms of controlling access to a shared channel. To fix this you can use a special sub layer of data link layer, called the medium acc ess sub layer. Network Layer Network layer serves to control operation of the subnet. Important design problem is how to determine the route packets from source to destination. Route can be based on static tables are linked to network. Route can also be determined at the beginning of a conversation such as a terminal session. Finally, the route can also be very dynamic; it can be different for each package. Therefore, the delivery route of a packet depends on network load at that time. If at the same time in a subnet there are too many packets, then there is the possibility of the packages arrive at the same time. This can lead to bottlenecks. Congestion control as it is also the task of the network layer. Because the sub net operators expect the good fortune of his job duties. There is often some accounting function built at the network layer. To make billing information, at least the software should calculate the number of packets or characters or bits that are sent by each customer. Accounting becomes more co mplicated, when a packet crosses a country that has a different rate. The move packets from one network to another can also cause problems that are not small. Addressing mode used by a network can be different from the methods used by other network. A network may be unable to receive the package at all because the packet size is too big. Protocol was be different, as well as others. Network layer has been given the task to solve all these problems, allowing different networks interconnected to each other. Transport Layer The basic function is the transport layer receives data from the session layer, split the data into pieces smaller if necessary, forwards the data to the network layer, and ensure that all pieces of data can arrive at the other side correctly. Moreover, all this must be done efficiently, and aims to protect the upper layers of the changes in hardware technology that can not be avoided. Under normal circumstances, the transport layer makes the network connection is different for each transport connection which is required by the session layer. When the transport connection requires a high throughput, then the transport layer can make a lot of network connections. Transport layer divide sending data to a number of networks to increase throughput. On the other hand, if the manufacture or maintenance of the network connection is quite expensive, transport layer can combine multiple transport connections to the same network connection. This is done to make this merger is not seen by the s ession layer. Transport layer also determines the type of service for the session layer, and in turn the type of service for users of the network. Type of the most popular transport layer is a channel error-free point to point that forward messages or bytes in accordance with the order delivery. However, there are also other types of transport services. The services are transport isolated messages that do not guarantee order of delivery, and broadcast messages to a number of purposes. Type of service determined when the connection starts. Transport layer is a layer end to end in fact, from source to destination. In other words, a program on the source machine to bring the conversation with the same program on the target machine. In the lower layers, there are protocols between the two machines and other machines that are close by. Protocol is not located in the outer or the source machines outer purpose machine, which may be separated by a router. The differences between layers 1 to 3 are intertwined and layer 4 to 7 are end to end. This can be explained as shown in Figure 1-1. In addition to merging multiple streams of messages into a single channel, transport layer must be careful in defining and deciding on the network connection. This process requires a naming mechanism, so that a process on a machine has a way to explain with whom the machine wants to talk. Also there should be a mechanism to regulate the flow of information, so that the flow of information from a fast host does not overwhelm a slow host. Such mechanism is called flow control and plays an important role in the transport layer (also in other layers). Flow control between hosts with different hosts by controlling the flow of the router with the router. Well find out later that the same principles used for both types of the control. Session Layer Session layer allows users to establish sessions with other users. A session in addition allows ordinary data transport, as did the transport layer, also provides special services for specific applications. A session is used to allow one user logs into a remote timesharing system or to move files from one machine to another to machine. A session layer service is to implement the dialogue control. Sessions can allow traffic to move in two directions at one time or only in one direction only. If at one time in traffic only in one direction only analogous to a single railway line, the session layer helps to determine who is entitled to use the channels turn at an instant. Service sessions are described as token management. For some protocols, it is important to ensure that both parties concerned do not perform surgery at the same time. To regulate this activity, the session layer provides tokens that can turn. Only a party that holds the token is allowed performs critical operations. Another session is a synchronization service. Take for example that can occur when trying to transfer files that lasted 2 hours from one machine to another machine with the possibility of having an interval of 1 hour between the two crashes that can occur. After each transfer is canceled, the transfer may need to be repeated again from scratch, and may experience another failure. To reduce the possibility of this problem, the session layer can insert a specific sign to the flow of data. Therefore, if a crash, only the data that is after the sign is to be transferred back. Presentation Layer Presentation layer performs certain functions that are required to ensure the discovery of a common solution for certain problems. Presentation Layer does not allow users to solve their own problems. Unlike the layers underneath are only moving the bits from one place to another place, presentation layer attention to syntax and semantics of information transmitted. One example is the encoding of data presentation service. Most users do not move a random string of binary bits. The users exchange data just as the name, date, amount of money, and bills. The items are expressed in the form of a string of characters, integer numbers, floating point numbers, a data structure formed from some simpler items. There is a difference between one computer to another computer in a given code to declare a string of characters (for example, ASCII and Unicode), integer (for example, complement and complement one two), and so forth. To allow the two computers that have different presentation to commun icate, data structures to be exchanged can be expressed by means of abstract, in accordance with standard encoding to be used on line. Presentation layer-data set and convert this abstract structure of representation that is used on a computer into a network standard representation, and vice versa. Application Layer Application layer consists of a variety of protocols. For example there are hundreds of incompatible terminal types in the entire world. Take the situation where full-screen editor is expected to work on a network with a variety of terminals, which each have different screen layouts, have a way different sequence of keystrokes for the insertion and deletion of text, move the sensor and so forth. One way to overcome such problems in data is to define an abstract network virtual terminal, so editors and other programs can be written for each corresponding. To handle each terminal type, one part of the software must be written to map the network virtual terminal functions to the actual terminal. For example, when moving the cursor editor virtual terminal into the left corner of the screen, the software should issue the appropriate command sequence to achieve the cursor. All virtual terminal software is in the application layer. Another application layer function is file transfer. File systems from one another have different naming conventions, how to express the lines of text are different, and so forth. Transfer files from a system different to other systems that require treatment to overcome the lack of this compatible. The task is also a job application layer, such as electronic mail, remote job entry, directory lookup, and various general purpose facilities and other special purpose facilities. CONCLUSION The process of sending a data to be sent to the recipient. Sender processes submitting data to the application layer, which then add the user application header, the AH (which may also be empty), the front end and submit the results to the presentation layer. Presentation layer can form these data in various ways and may just add a header at the front end, which is given by the session layer. It is important to remember that the presentation layer is not aware of the data which are marked AH by application layer is the data users really are. The process of granting this header repeated until the data reaches the physical layer, where data will be transmitted to other machines. On these machines, all headers were be removed one by one until reaching the admissions process. Figure1 .3 Examples of how the OSI model used The key here is that although the actual data transmission is each layer is programmed as though the transmission in question took place horizontally. For example, when transport layer delivery get a message from the session layer, transport layer will then affix the transport layer header and sends it to the receiver transport layer. INTRODUCTION Computer networks are a tool, known also as nodes, relating to media liaison. Node may consist of a computer, printer or other device to send and receive data generated by other nodes, nodes in the network. Media Liaison, also known as communication media. On this day, there are various types of networks, including local area network (LAN) and wide area network (WAN). The largest network in the world is the Internet. Edit Development. Network started with a small building, the connection about ten computers and a printer. The technology that exists at the time the computer is connected to limit the number and length of communications cable that can be allowed on the network. In the early nineties the communication cable can be pulled so far about 600 feet to the extension of approximately 30 computers only. This network is suitable for a small organization known as local area network (LAN). LANs typically connect devices in a building or a building. A LAN can be built only with two computers and a printer or can be extended only in one building to include audio and video software. LAN size is limited to a distance of several kilometers only. LAN with data rates from 4 Mbps to 100 Mbps. Network connections from different countries has established the development of LAN to the wide area network (WAN). WAN can be sending data, audio and video at distances up to cover a country or continent or around the world. QUESTION 2 Briefly explain at least four (4) topologies of networks and suggest how we implement these topologies in networking. MAIN BODY Network can be of any of the following three types: Local Area Network: Figure: 2.1 Local Area Network Local Area Network (LAN) is a limited range of geographical barriers such as a laboratory, a school or building. In a typical LAN configuration, one of the computers used as file server file server that functions to keep all the software that controls the network. All computers are connected to the server file known as a workstation. Computer workstation comprising a desktop computer specifications less than the server and also may have software on the disk severity. Cable used to connect the LAN via network card installed on each computer. Metropolitan Area Network: Figure : 2.2 Metropolitan Area Network Town Area Network (MAN) covers a wider geographical area as a region or city. Widespread area network connecting a number of Local Area Network in a place to enable sharing of information carried. Universities and government agencies Wide spread Area Network to communicate with the other communities and private industries. One example is the MAN MIND Network, located in Pasco County, Florida which enables communication between the Central Pasco Media Center Main Frame using a telephone line, coaxial cable, and wireless communication providers. Wide Area Network: Figure : 2.3 Wide Area Network Widespread Area Network (WAN) covers a wider area as a state, nation and world. To create a WAN requires systems across the sea or the use of microwave or satellite. Use WAN enables communication between the states can be implemented quickly. Configuring the WAN is complex and requires a hardware multiplexing multiplexer for LAN and MAN links for access to a comprehensive communications network such as the Internet. Network Topology: Figure : 3.1 Network Topology à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½A computer network system using communication line that connects computers to each otherà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½.[5] There are various methods that can be used for the communication and is known as topology. Topology can be considered as a virtual shape or structure of a network. This shape actually does not correspond to the actual physical design of the devices on the computer network. The computers on the home network can be arranged in a circle shape but it does not necessarily mean that it presents a ring topology. There are few types of topologies for computer networks, namely: Star Network Topology Figure :3.1.1 Star Network Topology Star topology is a network where all computers or other devices connected to the central distribution system, known as the Hub or Switch. Hub or Switch is responsible for managing the computer network. All messages or data that is sent to a central control hub for avoid collisions from occurring. There are two operations that used by the hub or switch that is operating broadcast and the operations of the transition switching. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½Distribution operations, hub or switch will make the delivery of data received from one station to all the routes connecting them. In transition operations, the hub or switch will save the data received and sends the data through a receiving stationà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½.[3] Each node can be connected to the network and can be removed at any time without affecting the whole system of directly by. Furthermore, if one node does not work, it will not affect other computer networks. Any damage to the connection between the hub nodes will not affect the system as a whole, but if the damage occurred on the hub, the entire system will also be affected. The main weakness of this topology is that it requires a fairly high cost in view of all systems connected to it computers, scanners, printers, etc. requires its own cable. Ring Network Topology Figure :3.1.2 Ring Network Topology In local area networks where the ring topology is used, each computer is connected to the network in a closed loop or ring. The Messages or data to be transferred in order according to the same path in the same ring. Network technology was first used by IBM systems with Type I in the category of cable shielded Twisted Pair STP. Each data node will be checked by delivery location. If not the same node strike, it will be submitted to the next node and this will continue until the delivery address the same node strike. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½As the data is transferred by the same route as the sequence of the potential for violations of data that appears to be similar to the network and can be removed at any time without affecting the whole system of directly byà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½.[6] However, one problem that arises is if a node fails, the entire network will probably also be affected. Arrangement of nodes in this topology is almost the same physically as star topology; only a logical was a ring. The attachment is required in this topology is called Multi Station Access Unit (MSAU). MSAU is installed in a ring-shaped network where it is more than one unit. If only one unit only used the physical topology is similar to the star connection. Bus Network Topology Figure :3.1.3 Bus Network Topology Bus topology, are also known as the Ethernet using a line length where each node in relation to him. Data will be sent by each node in the hope that it does not collide with data transmitted from other nodes. If it happens, the node will try again until successful. Weakness of the bus topology is in terms of maintenance. It is quite difficult to maintain in view of the connection is in the form of a series. In the event of damage to any line at any node, it will cause the entire system will not work. In addition to accurately locate points or nodes those are damaged. Each node can be connected to the network and can be removed at any time without affecting the whole system directly. Furthermore, if one node does not work nor does it affect other computer networks. The other advantage is there in this topology is that it uses a single cable and requires no additional hardware to build the network. But it does not require a very high cost for maintenance purposes. Tree Network Topology Figure :3.1.4 Tree Network Topology The tree topology is essentially a hybrid of the bus and star layouts. It is also known as a hierarchical topology and has a central root node that is connected to one or more nodes of a lower hierarchy. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½In a symmetrical hierarchy, each node in the network has a specific fixed number of nodes connected to those at a lower levelà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½.[3] Apart from these basic types of network topologies, there are hybrid network topologies, which are composed of a combination of two or more basic topologies. These network mappings aim at harnessing the advantages of each of the basic topologies used in them. Network topologies are the physical arrangements of network nodes and wires. What is interesting is that the inanimate nodes and wires turn live for the transmission of information. Mesh Network Topology Figure :3.1.5 Mesh Network Topology In a full mesh network, each network node is connected to every other node in the network. Due to this arrangement of nodes, it becomes possible for a simultaneous transmission of signals from one node to several other nodes. In a partially connected mesh network, only some of the network nodes are connected to more than one node. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½This is beneficial over a fully connected mesh in terms of redundancy caused by the point-to-point links between all the nodesà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½.[5] The nodes of a mesh network require possessing some kind of routing logic so that the signals and the data traveling over the network take the shortest path during each of the transmissions. CONCLUSION Topologies are essence of computer networks design. Efficient networks can only be built based on the complete knowledge and understanding of above mentioned topologies. Knowledge of every communication device is of equal importance to help you find the best option for your network requirements. Optimum networks can be built with complete knowledge and understanding of computer network devices and how they are designed, any mistake in choosing inappropriate techniques, device etc can only be the waste of time, resources and efforts. APPENDIX Figure 1.1. OSI Reference Model Application Application Overlay Presentation Session Transport Data Transport Undercoat Network Data Link Physical Table 1.2 Separation of top layer and bottom layer of the OSI model Figure1 .3 Examples of how the OSI model used Figure: 2.1 Local Area Network Figure : 2.2 Metropolitan Area Network Figure : 2.3 Wide Area Network Figure : 3.1 Network Topology Figure :3.1.1 Star Network Topology Figure :3.1.2 Ring Network Topology Figure :3.1.3 Bus Network Topology Figure :3.1.4 Tree Network Topology

Auditory Localization Essay -- Hearing Sound Perception Essays

Auditory Localization Auditory localization is the ability to recognize the location from which a sound is emanating (Goldstine, 2002). There are many practical reasons for studying auditory localization. For example, previous research states that visual cues are necessary in locating a particular sound (Culling, 2000). However, blind people do not have the luxury of sight to help them locate a sound. Therefore, the ability to locate sound based only on auditory ability is important. It is also important to study different auditory processes. For example, when studying a way for a blind person to maneuver through an environment, it is helpful to know that people can most accurately locate sounds that happen directly in front of them; sounds that are far off, to the side, or behind the head are the least likely to be properly located (Goldstein, 2002). Three coordinate systems are utilized when attempting to locate a specific sound. The azimuth coordinate determines if a sound is located to the left or the right of a listener. The elevation coordinate differentiates between sounds that are up or down relative to the listener. Finally, the distance coordinate determines how far away a sound is from the receiver (Goldstine, 2002). Different aspects of the coordinate systems are also essential to sound localization. For example, when identifying the azimuth in a sound, three acoustic cues are used: spectral cues, interaural time differences (ITD), and interaural level differences (ILD) (Lorenzi, Gatehouse, & Lever, 1999). When dealing with sound localizaton, spectral cues are teh distribution of frequencies reaching teh ear. Brungart and Durlach (1999) (as seen in Shinn-Cunning, Santarelli, & Kopco, 1999) believed that as the ... ...Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 26 (6), 760-1769. Goldstein, E. (2002). Sensation and perception (Rev. ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Wadsworth-Thomsom Learning. Lorenzi, C., Gatehouse, S., & Lever, C. (1999). Sound localization in noise in hearing impaired listeners. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 105 (6), 3454-3463. Lorenzi, C., Gatehouse, S., & Lever, C. (1999). Sound localization in noise in normal hearing listeners. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 105 (3), 1810-1820. McDonald, J., Teder-Salejarvi, W, & Hillyard, S. (2000). Involuntary orienting to sound improves visual perception. Nature, 407, 906-907. Shinn-Cunningham, B., Santarelli, S., & Kopco, N. (1999). Tori of Confusion: Binaural localization cues for sources within reach of the listener. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 107 (3), 1627-1636.

Startres

At starting, when the motor is stationary, there is no back e. m. f. in the armature. Consequently, if the motor is directly switched on to the mains, the armature will draw a heavy current (la = WRa) because of small armature resistance. As an example, 5 H. P. , 220 V shunt motor has a full-load current of 20 A and an armature resistance of about 0. 5 0. If this motor is directly switched on to supply, it would take an armature current of 220/0. 5 = 440 A which is 22 times the full-load current.This high starting current may result in: (i) burning of armature due to excessive heating ffect, damaging the commutator and brushes due to heavy sparking, (iii) excessive voltage drop in the line to which the motor is connected. The result is that the operation of other appliances connected to the line may be impaired and in particular cases, they may refuse to work. In order to avoid excessive current at starting, a variable resistance (known as starting resistance) is inserted in series w ith the armature circuit.This resistance is gradually reduced as the motor gains speed (and hence Eb increases) and eventually it is cut out completely when the motor has ttained full speed. The value of starting resistance is generally such that starting current is limited to 1. 25 to 2 times the full-load current. 5. 8 Types of D. C. Motor Starters The stalling operation of a d. c. motor consists in the insertion of external resistance into the armature circuit to limit the starting current taken by the motor and the removal of this resistance in steps as the motor accelerates.When the motor attains the normal speed, this resistance is totally cut out of the armature circuit. It is very important and desirable to provide the starter with protective evices to enable the starter arm to return to OFF position (i) when the supply fails, thus preventing the armature being directly across the mains when this voltage is restored. For this purpose, we use no-volt release coil. (it) when t he motor becomes overloaded or develops a fault causing the motor to take an excessive current. For this purpose, we use overload release coil.There are two principal types of d. c. motor starters viz. , three-point starter and four- point starter. As we shall see, the two types of starters differ only in the manner in which the no-volt release coil is connected. 5. 9 Three-Point Starter This type of starter is widely used for starting shunt and compound motors. Schematic diagram Fig. (5. 16) shows the schematic diagram of a three-point starter for a shunt motor with protective devices. It is so called because it has three terminals L, Z and A.The starter consists of starting resistance divided into several sections and connected in out to a number of studs. The three terminals L, Z and A of the starter are connected respectively to the positive line terminal, shunt field terminal and armature terminal. The other terminals of the armature and shunt field windings are connected to th e negative terminal of the supply. The no-volt release coil is connected in the shunt field circuit. One end of the handle is connected to the terminal L through the over- load release coil.The other end of the handle moves against a spiral spring and makes contact with each stud during starting operation, cutting out more and more starting resistance as it passes over each stud in clockwise direction. Operation (i) To start with, the d. c. supply is switched on with handle in the OFF position. (ii) The handle is now moved clockwise to the first stud. As soon as it comes in contact with the first stud, the shunt field winding is directly connected across the supply, hile the whole starting resistance is inserted in series with the armature circuit. iii) As the handle is gradually moved over to the final stud, the starting resistance is cut out of the armature circuit in steps. The handle is now held magnetically by the no-volt release coil which is energized by shunt field current. (‘v) If the supply voltage is suddenly interrupted or if the field excitation is accidentally cut, the no-volt release coil is demagnetized and the handle goes back to the OFF position under the pull of the spring. If no-volt release coil were not used, hen in case of failure of supply, the handle would remain on the final stud.If then supply is restored, the motor will be directly connected across the supply, resulting in an excessive armature current. (v) If the motor is over-loaded (or a fault occurs), it will draw excessive current from the supply. This current will increase the ampere-turns of the over-load release coil and pull the armature C, thus short-circuiting the novolt release coil. The no-volt coil is demagnetized and the handle is pulled to the OFF position by the spring. Thus, the motor is automatically disconnected from the supply. Fig. (5. 17) DrawbackIn a three-point starter, the no-volt release coil is connected in series with the shunt field circuit so tha t it carries the shunt field current. While exercising speed control through field regulator, the field current may be weakened to such an extent that the no-volt release coil may not be able to keep the starter arm in the ON position. This may disconnect the motor from the supply when it is not desired. This drawback is overcome in the four point starter. 5. 10 Four-Point Starter In a four-point starter, the no-volt release coil is connected directly across the supply line through a protective resistance R. Fig. (5. ) shows the schematic diagram of a 4- point starter for a shunt motor (over-load release coil omitted for clarity of the figure). Now the no-volt release coil circuit is independent of the shunt field circuit. Therefore, proper speed control can be exercised without affecting the operation of novolt release coil. between a three-point starter and a four-point starter is the manner in which no-volt release coil is connected. However, the working of the two starters is th e same. It may be noted that the threepoint starter also provides protection against an openfield circuit. This protection is not provided by the four-point starte

Funny Break up Quotes to Make You Feel Better

Funny Break up Quotes to Make You Feel Better Regardless of whether you have been through one or a dozen breakups, each one erodes your spirit. A breakup leaves you sapped. It affects your self-esteem, confidence, and relationships. Many heartbroken people are known to drown themselves into addiction: be it smoking, drugs, or even food. The emotional upheaval also causes physical disorders: insomnia, memory loss, weight gain, and digestive disorders. Different Ways to Heal While you shouldnt drown your grief in alcohol or drugs, you should take solace in spiritual talks, music, yoga, and dance. Take up activities that help release stress, and heal your soul. Read self-improvement books, inspirational quotes, or even funny quotes to shake off the gloom. Share your feelings with friends, without clinging on to the past. Most of all, avoid blaming yourself. Laughter Is the Best Medicine Humor helps cushion the fall after a bad breakup. Laughter releases the endorphins that are needed to counter depression. Humor also helps you reflect on the situation in a lighter vein. Many humorists have poked fun at breakups. Read this collection of funny breakup quotes. These quotes make light of the situation, poking harmless jokes. Some quotes mock at love and marriage. Let laughter play on your lips when you read these funny breakup quotes. Quotes Joan Crawford Love is a fire. But whether it is going to warm your hearth or burn down your house, you can never tell. Mae West All discarded lovers should be given a second chance, but with somebody else. Steve Martin There is one thing I would break up over and that is if she caught me with another woman. I wouldnt stand for that. Johnny Carson The difference between a divorce and a legal separation is that a legal separation gives a husband time to hide his money. Paris Hilton Every woman should have four pets in her life. A mink in her closet, a jaguar in her garage, a tiger in her bed, and a jackass to pay for it all. Cyril Connolly The dread of loneliness is greater than the dread of bondage, so we get married. Victoria Holt Never regret. If its good, its wonderful. If its bad, its experience. Ogden Nash Love is a word that is constantly heard, Hate is a word that is not. Love, I am told, is more precious than gold. Love, I have read, is hot. But Hate is the verb that to me is superb, And Love but a drug on the mart. Any kiddie in school can Love like a fool, But Hating, my boy, is an Art. Marie Corelli I never married because there was no need. I have three pets at home, which answer the same purpose as a husband. I have a dog, which growls every morning, a parrot which swears all afternoon and a cat that comes home late at night. Bob Udkoff Hate is such a luxurious emotion, it can only be spent on one we love. Miss Piggy, The Muppet Show Is there a cure for a broken heart? Only time can heal your broken heart, just as time can heal his broken arms and legs.How can a woman be expected to be happy with a man who insists on treating her as if she were a perfectly normal human being. Cher The trouble with women is that they get all excited about nothing... and then marry him! Dave Barry The obvious and fair solution to the housework problem is to let men do the housework for, say, the next six thousand years, to even things up. The trouble is that over the years, men have developed an inflated notion of everything they do, so that before long they would turn housework into just as much a charade as business is now. They would hire secretaries and buy computers and fly off to housework conferences in Bermuda, but theyd never clean anything. Katherine Hepburn Sometimes I wonder if men and women really suit each other. Perhaps they should live next door and just visit now and then. Rita Rudner The older theory was, marry an older man because theyre more mature. But the new theory is men dont mature. Marry a younger one. Mahatma Gandhi I first learned the concepts of non-violence in my marriage. Sir George Jessel Marriage is a mistake every man should make. Dennis Miller After 7 years of marriage, I am sure of two things. First, never wallpaper together and second, youll need two bathrooms... both for her. The rest is a mystery, but a mystery I love to be involved in. Queen Victoria When I think of a merry, happy, free girl, and look at the ailing, aching state a wife is generally doomed to, which you cant deny is the penalty of marriage. Andy Rooney For every stunning, smart, well-coiffed hot woman of forty plus, there is a balding, paunchy relic in yellow pants making a fool of himself with some 22-year-old waitress. Lizz Winstead I think... therefore, Im single. Steve Martin There is one thing I would break up over and that is if she caught me with another woman. I wouldnt stand for that. Jerry Seinfeld Breaking up is like knocking over a Coke machine. You cant do it in one push. You gotta rock it back and forth a few times, and then it goes over. John Imbergamo There are always a few before-Valentines Day breakups that allow people to cancel reservations. Katherine Mansfield If only one could tell true love from false love as one can tell mushrooms from toadstools. Mae West Live close, visit often.Marriage is a great institution, but Im not ready for an institution yet. Queen Elizabeth I of England I would rather be a beggar and single, than a queen and married. Marion Smith Can you imagine a world without men? No crime and lots of happy, fat women. Jane Austen It is always incomprehensible to men, that a woman should refuse an offer of marriage. Jean Harlow I like to wake up each morning feeling a new man. Gloria Steinem The surest way to be alone is to get married. Socrates By all means marry, if you get a good wife, youll be happy. If you get a bad one, youll become a philosopher.I guess the only way to stop divorce is to stop marriage. Dave Barry What women want: To be loved, to be listened to, to be desired, to be respected, to be needed, to be trusted, and sometimes, just to be held. What men want: Tickets to the World Series.

Synonyms for Petit, Small, and Short in French

Synonyms for Petit, Small, and Short in French If you want to learn to speak French more skillfully, start with vocabulary. In French classes, you tend to learn the most common, basic terms. The adjective petit is one example of a very common French word that can be replaced by any number of synonyms. Learn some different ways to say small and short, and note the different nuances. Click on each word to hear it pronounced. Small or Short in French Petit means small or short, depending on how its used and the words that are used with it. Jai besoin dun petit carton.I need a small box. Elle est assez petite.She is fairly short. Petit can also be modified by tout to emphasize the smallness: Il y a un tout petit problà ¨me.Theres a tiny problem. Synonyms for Petit Court means short or brief. Vous devriez à ©crire une introduction courte.You should write a short introduction. Il a la mà ©moire courte.He has a short memory. Étriquà © means narrow or tight. Cà ©tait une victoire à ©triquà ©e.It was a narrow victory. Ton pantalon a lair dà ªtre assez à ©triquà ©.Your pants look pretty tight. Faible means weak or small. Nous navons quune faible quantità © de rà ©serves.We have only a few supplies. Fin means fine or thin. Jaimerais une fine tranche de gà ¢teau.Id like a thin slice of cake. Infime means tiny or miniscule. Il a gagnà © dune majorità © infime.He won by a tiny majority. Là ©ger means light, slight, or minor. Cest une blessure là ©gà ¨re.Its a minor wound. Maigre means meager or slight. ï » ¿Son revenu maigre nest pas suffisant.His meager income is insufficient. Microscopique means microscopic. Les microbes sont microscopiques.Germs are microscopic. Mince means thin, meager, or slender. Nous avons une mince chance de succà ¨s.We have a slender chance of success. Minuscule means miniscule or tiny. Je dà ©teste ces minuscules fenà ªtres dans les salles de bains.I hate those minuscule windows in bathrooms. Modeste means small or modest. Cest un appartement modeste.Its a modest apartment. Nà ©gligeable means negligible or trivial. Jignore les dà ©tails nà ©gligeables.I dont know about the trivial details. Peu is an adverb that means little or not much. Elle parle peu.She speaks little (she doesnt talk very much). Rà ©duit means small. Un nombre rà ©duit de nos à ©tudiants.A small number of our students.

Computers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Computers - Essay Example This essay is an evaluation of computer networks dedicated to laptop desktop connection. Data communication is the transfer of information from the sender to the receiver through a communication medium. The most common media for this process include cables, air/waves and satellite etc. Telephone communication starts with the sender initiating a connection by dialing the recipient’s number from his data transmission equipment (DTE) (Harte and Ofrane 2006). Once he does this, the call passes through either a public switched network (PSTN) or a private branch exchange (PBX) depending on the nature of the call. A PBX is a telephone switching exchange that is dedicated to controlling telephone communication within a company or an organization. It connects calls within the company by providing extensions to calls that originate from various offices instead of hiring lines for every department. It also connects calls to outside networks. A PSTN connects local and international calls, in a large network structure that is not restricted to a specific subscriber or organization (Harte and Ofrane 2006). Once the call is switched to his address, the receiver is alerted and to complete the connection, he has to switch on his DTE to start transmission. Telephone switching companies also offer internet connection services through their satellites which act as gateways to wide area networks. This connection involves transmission of digital signals through analog transmitting lines. For this to occur, modems are connected on both ends of the transmission for the purpose of modulating (converting digital signals into analog) the signals from the sending machine and demodulating (converting analog signals back into digital form) signals on the receiving machine (Hennesy 2006). This is because computers only understand digitized information which is in binary form i.e. 1s& 0s A

Social Structure Simularities between Humans and Baboons Essay

Social Structure Simularities between Humans and Baboons - Essay Example Most of the sources in this paper are derived from the works of Robert Sapolsky, a professor of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Dorothy L. Cheney, a professor of Biology and Robert M. Sayfarth, a professor of Psychology. The work of Sapolsky focuses on issues on stress while the work of Cheney and Sayfarth focuses on the evolution of social mind of baboons. Baboons maintain a large group for their survival and reproduction. Each group consists of up to 100 individuals. This is considerably larger than most chimpanzee communities. (Cheney and Seyfarth) In this culture baboons need to work together as one collective unit to create more of their species and to keep their community running. Each member has a obligation to the community, whether that be bearing children, taking care of children, providing food for the clan, or offering protection for the clan. The philosophy behind any community is that not one individual is capable of complete self-sufficiency; support is needed for survival. And within each community is a web of social hierarchy established by power, size, built, aggressiveness and alliances. (Anitei) This dominancy rank affects their stress physiology, feeding behavior, and growth. (Baboon Social Life) And this hierarchy affects male and female differently. For females, the effects of rank a... (Baboon Social Life) For males, there are some periods where high-ranking males enjoy a very great advantage in obtaining a mate. However there are other periods where lower-ranking males obtain more mating opportunities by forming coalitions with other males that succeed in dislodging high-ranking males from their mates. (Baboon Social Life) Baboons are similar to humans in their survival and reproduction rates, granted humans may vary from continent to continent but in general humans co-exist in large communities, cities, residential areas, college campuses, etc. Humans as a species depend on each other for survival whether it is a emotional, physical, or mental support system or in a series of import and export systems to gather goods. Like baboons, our communities are devised up of social hierarchy, for example in India there is a still a caste system and in America, social hierarchy is established based on the economic vale of each family or individual. Furthermore on a global level we as countries are divided by power (nuclear, military, navy, etc) and we have our alliances such as in the united Nations. The dominancy ranks of the local, national, and global level all affect the stress, feeding behavior, and growth of an individual, a family, or a country. For example if a nation does not have the proper economic me ans to support its people then the people will have varied feeding abilities, their stress will increase, and if starvation ensues than the growth of the community will decrease. The difference between ranking among males and females in the human world and in the baboon world, is that in the human world there are rules that govern how an individuals in